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Eastbay - supply/demand...

MissJanet79

New member
What the hell is wrong w/ Eastbay?! I've been wanting to purchase some Nike Shox FSM: http://a712.g.akamai.net/7/712/225/1h/www.eastbay.com/images/products/zoom/07624001_z.jpg

& Eastbay has had them on backorder since before Christmas!! I called today & customer service rep stated that if I order today I'll have them by the end of March! WTF?! Lady Footlocker doesn't carry them anymore & Finish Line has them but only in kids sizes - nothing for women!

Is it just me, or does NIKE etc., make more shoes/styles/colors for men than they do for women?! Grrrr!! ~ Sorry just venting...
 
No clue what the Fuck any of this means.
I gather it is regarding shoes.
 
This thread isn't long enough, try this:

The Call of Cthulhu
by H. P. Lovecraft
Written Summer 1926

Published February 1928 in Weird Tales, Vol. 11, No. 2, p. 159-78, 287.

Of such great powers or beings there may be conceivably a survival... a survival of a hugely remote period when... consciousness was manifested, perhaps, in shapes and forms long since withdrawn before the tide of advancing humanity... forms of which poetry and legend alone have caught a flying memory and called them gods, monsters, mythical beings of all sorts and kinds...

- Algernon Blackwood

I. The Horror In Clay
The most merciful thing in the world, I think, is the inability of the human mind to correlate all its contents. We live on a placid island of ignorance in the midst of black seas of infinity, and it was not meant that we should voyage far. The sciences, each straining in its own direction, have hitherto harmed us little; but some day the piecing together of dissociated knowledge will open up such terrifying vistas of reality, and of our frightful position therein, that we shall either go mad from the revelation or flee from the light into the peace and safety of a new dark age.

Theosophists have guessed at the awesome grandeur of the cosmic cycle wherein our world and human race form transient incidents. They have hinted at strange survivals in terms which would freeze the blood if not masked by a bland optimism. But it is not from them that there came the single glimpse of forbidden eons which chills me when I think of it and maddens me when I dream of it. That glimpse, like all dread glimpses of truth, flashed out from an accidental piecing together of separated things - in this case an old newspaper item and the notes of a dead professor. I hope that no one else will accomplish this piecing out; certainly, if I live, I shall never knowingly supply a link in so hideous a chain. I think that the professor, too intented to keep silent regarding the part he knew, and that he would have destroyed his notes had not sudden death seized him.

My knowledge of the thing began in the winter of 1926-27 with the death of my great-uncle, George Gammell Angell, Professor Emeritus of Semitic Languages in Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island. Professor Angell was widely known as an authority on ancient inscriptions, and had frequently been resorted to by the heads of prominent museums; so that his passing at the age of ninety-two may be recalled by many. Locally, interest was intensified by the obscurity of the cause of death. The professor had been stricken whilst returning from the Newport boat; falling suddenly; as witnesses said, after having been jostled by a nautical-looking negro who had come from one of the queer dark courts on the precipitous hillside which formed a short cut from the waterfront to the deceased's home in Williams Street. Physicians were unable to find any visible disorder, but concluded after perplexed debate that some obscure lesion of the heart, induced by the brisk ascent of so steep a hill by so elderly a man, was responsible for the end. At the time I saw no reason to dissent from this dictum, but latterly I am inclined to wonder - and more than wonder.

As my great-uncle's heir and executor, for he died a childless widower, I was expected to go over his papers with some thoroughness; and for that purpose moved his entire set of files and boxes to my quarters in Boston. Much of the material which I correlated will be later published by the American Archaeological Society, but there was one box which I found exceedingly puzzling, and which I felt much averse from showing to other eyes. It had been locked and I did not find the key till it occurred to me to examine the personal ring which the professor carried in his pocket. Then, indeed, I succeeded in opening it, but when I did so seemed only to be confronted by a greater and more closely locked barrier. For what could be the meaning of the queer clay bas-relief and the disjointed jottings, ramblings, and cuttings which I found? Had my uncle, in his latter years become credulous of the most superficial impostures? I resolved to search out the eccentric sculptor responsible for this apparent disturbance of an old man's peace of mind.

The bas-relief was a rough rectangle less than an inch thick and about five by six inches in area; obviously of modern origin. Its designs, however, were far from modern in atmosphere and suggestion; for, although the vagaries of cubism and futurism are many and wild, they do not often reproduce that cryptic regularity which lurks in prehistoric writing. And writing of some kind the bulk of these designs seemed certainly to be; though my memory, despite much the papers and collections of my uncle, failed in any way to identify this particular species, or even hint at its remotest affiliations.

Above these apparent hieroglyphics was a figure of evident pictorial intent, though its impressionistic execution forbade a very clear idea of its nature. It seemed to be a sort of monster, or symbol representing a monster, of a form which only a diseased fancy could conceive. If I say that my somewhat extravagant imagination yielded simultaneous pictures of an octopus, a dragon, and a human caricature, I shall not be unfaithful to the spirit of the thing. A pulpy, tentacled head surmounted a grotesque and scaly body with rudimentary wings; but it was the general outline of the whole which made it most shockingly frightful. Behind the figure was a vague suggestions of a Cyclopean architectural background.

The writing accompanying this oddity was, aside from a stack of press cuttings, in Professor Angell's most recent hand; and made no pretense to literary style. What seemed to be the main document was headed "CTHULHU CULT" in characters painstakingly printed to avoid the erroneous reading of a word so unheard-of. This manuscript was divided into two sections, the first of which was headed "1925 - Dream and Dream Work of H.A. Wilcox, 7 Thomas St., Providence, R. I.", and the second, "Narrative of Inspector John R. Legrasse, 121 Bienville St., New Orleans, La., at 1908 A. A. S. Mtg. - Notes on Same, & Prof. Webb's Acct." The other manuscript papers were brief notes, some of them accounts of the queer dreams of different persons, some of them citations from theosophical books and magazines (notably W. Scott-Elliot's Atlantis and the Lost Lemuria), and the rest comments on long-surviving secret societies and hidden cults, with references to passages in such mythological and anthropological source-books as Frazer's Golden Bough and Miss Murray's Witch-Cult in Western Europe. The cuttings largely alluded to outré mental illness and outbreaks of group folly or mania in the spring of 1925.

The first half of the principal manuscript told a very particular tale. It appears that on March 1st, 1925, a thin, dark young man of neurotic and excited aspect had called upon Professor Angell bearing the singular clay bas-relief, which was then exceedingly damp and fresh. His card bore the name of Henry Anthony Wilcox, and my uncle had recognized him as the youngest son of an excellent family slightly known to him, who had latterly been studying sculpture at the Rhode Island School of Design and living alone at the Fleur-de-Lys Building near that institution. Wilcox was a precocious youth of known genius but great eccentricity, and had from chidhood excited attention through the strange stories and odd dreams he was in the habit of relating. He called himself "psychically hypersensitive", but the staid folk of the ancient commercial city dismissed him as merely "queer." Never mingling much with his kind, he had dropped gradually from social visibility, and was now known only to a small group of esthetes from other towns. Even the Providence Art Club, anxious to preserve its conservatism, had found him quite hopeless.

On the ocassion of the visit, ran the professor's manuscript, the sculptor abruptly asked for the benefit of his host's archeological knowledge in identifying the hieroglyphics of the bas-relief. He spoke in a dreamy, stilted manner which suggested pose and alienated sympathy; and my uncle showed some sharpness in replying, for the conspicuous freshness of the tablet implied kinship with anything but archeology. Young Wilcox's rejoinder, which impressed my uncle enough to make him recall and record it verbatim, was of a fantastically poetic cast which must have typified his whole conversation, and which I have since found highly characteristic of him. He said, "It is new, indeed, for I made it last night in a dream of strange cities; and dreams are older than brooding Tyre, or the contemplative Sphinx, or garden-girdled Babylon."

It was then that he began that rambling tale which suddenly played upon a sleeping memory and won the fevered interest of my uncle. There had been a slight earthquake tremor the night before, the most considerable felt in New England for some years; and Wilcox's imagination had been keenly affected. Upon retiring, he had had an unprecedented dream of great Cyclopean cities of Titan blocks and sky-flung monoliths, all dripping with green ooze and sinister with latent horror. Hieroglyphics had covered the walls and pillars, and from some undetermined point below had come a voice that was not a voice; a chaotic sensation which only fancy could transmute into sound, but which he attempted to render by the almost unpronounceable jumble of letters: "Cthulhu fhtagn."

This verbal jumble was the key to the recollection which excited and disturbed Professor Angell. He questioned the sculptor with scientific minuteness; and studied with frantic intensity the bas-relief on which the youth had found himself working, chilled and clad only in his night clothes, when waking had stolen bewilderingly over him. My uncle blamed his old age, Wilcox afterwards said, for his slowness in recognizing both hieroglyphics and pictorial design. Many of his questions seemed highly out of place to his visitor, especially those which tried to connect the latter with strange cults or societies; and Wilcox could not understand the repeated promises of silence which he was offered in exchange for an admission of membership in some widespread mystical or paganly religious body. When Professor Angell became convinced that the sculptor was indeed ignorant of any cult or system of cryptic lore, he besieged his visitor with demands for future reports of dreams. This bore regular fruit, for after the first interview the manuscript records daily calls of the young man, during which he related startling fragments of nocturnal imaginery whose burden was always some terrible Cyclopean vista of dark and dripping stone, with a subterrene voice or intelligence shouting monotonously in enigmatical sense-impacts uninscribable save as gibberish. The two sounds frequently repeated are those rendered by the letters "Cthulhu" and "R'lyeh."

On March 23, the manuscript continued, Wilcox failed to appear; and inquiries at his quarters revealed that he had been stricken with an obscure sort of fever and taken to the home of his family in Waterman Street. He had cried out in the night, arousing several other artists in the building, and had manifested since then only alternations of unconsciousness and delirium. My uncle at once telephoned the family, and from that time forward kept close watch of the case; calling often at the Thayer Street office of Dr. Tobey, whom he learned to be in charge. The youth's febrile mind, apparently, was dwelling on strange things; and the doctor shuddered now and then as he spoke of them. They included not only a repetition of what he had formerly dreamed, but touched wildly on a gigantic thing "miles high" which walked or lumbered about.

He at no time fully described this object but occasional frantic words, as repeated by Dr. Tobey, convinced the professor that it must be identical with the nameless monstrosity he had sought to depict in his dream-sculpture. Reference to this object, the doctor added, was invariably a prelude to the young man's subsidence into lethargy. His temperature, oddly enough, was not greatly above normal; but the whole condition was otherwise such as to suggest true fever rather than mental disorder.

On April 2 at about 3 P.M. every trace of Wilcox's malady suddenly ceased. He sat upright in bed, astonished to find himself at home and completely ignorant of what had happened in dream or reality since the night of March 22. Pronounced well by his physician, he returned to his quarters in three days; but to Professor Angell he was of no further assistance. All traces of strange dreaming had vanished with his recovery, and my uncle kept no record of his night-thoughts after a week of pointless and irrelevant accounts of thoroughly usual visions.

Here the first part of the manuscript ended, but references to certain of the scattered notes gave me much material for thought - so much, in fact, that only the ingrained skepticism then forming my philosophy can account for my continued distrust of the artist. The notes in question were those descriptive of the dreams of various persons covering the same period as that in which young Wilcox had had his strange visitations. My uncle, it seems, had quickly instituted a prodigiously far-flung body of inquires amongst nearly all the friends whom he could question without impertinence, asking for nightly reports of their dreams, and the dates of any notable visions for some time past. The reception of his request seems to have varied; but he must, at the very least, have received more responses than any ordinary man could have handled without a secretary. This original correspondence was not preserved, but his notes formed a thorough and really significant digest. Average people in society and business - New England's traditional "salt of the earth" - gave an almost completely negative result, though scattered cases of uneasy but formless nocturnal impressions appear here and there, always between March 23 and and April 2 - the period of young Wilcox's delirium. Scientific men were little more affected, though four cases of vague description suggest fugitive glimpses of strange landscapes, and in one case there is mentioned a dread of something abnormal.

It was from the artists and poets that the pertinent answers came, and I know that panic would have broken loose had they been able to compare notes. As it was, lacking their original letters, I half suspected the compiler of having asked leading questions, or of having edited the correspondence in corroboration of what he had latently resolved to see. That is why I continued to feel that Wilcox, somehow cognizant of the old data which my uncle had possessed, had been imposing on the veteran scientist. These responses from esthetes told disturbing tale. From February 28 to April 2 a large proportion of them had dreamed very bizarre things, the intensity of the dreams being immeasurably the stronger during the period of the sculptor's delirium. Over a fourth of those who reported anything, reported scenes and half-sounds not unlike those which Wilcox had described; and some of the dreamers confessed acute fear of the gigantic nameless thing visible toward the last. One case, which the note describes with emphasis, was very sad. The subject, a widely known architect with leanings toward theosophy and occultism, went violently insane on the date of young Wilcox's seizure, and expired several months later after incessant screamings to be saved from some escaped denizen of hell. Had my uncle referred to these cases by name instead of merely by number, I should have attempted some corroboration and personal investigation; but as it was, I succeeded in tracing down only a few. All of these, however, bore out the notes in full. I have often wondered if all the the objects of the professor's questioning felt as puzzled as did this fraction. It is well that no explanation shall ever reach them.

The press cuttings, as I have intimated, touched on cases of panic, mania, and eccentricity during the given period. Professor Angell must have employed a cutting bureau, for the number of extracts was tremendous, and the sources scattered throughout the globe. Here was a nocturnal suicide in London, where a lone sleeper had leaped from a window after a shocking cry. Here likewise a rambling letter to the editor of a paper in South America, where a fanatic deduces a dire future from visions he has seen. A dispatch from California describes a theosophist colony as donning white robes en masse for some "glorious fulfiment" which never arrives, whilst items from India speak guardedly of serious native unrest toward the end of March 22-23.

The west of Ireland, too, is full of wild rumour and legendry, and a fantastic painter named Ardois-Bonnot hangs a blasphemous Dream Landscape in the Paris spring salon of 1926. And so numerous are the recorded troubles in insane asylums that only a miracle can have stopped the medical fraternity from noting strange parallelisms and drawing mystified conclusions. A weird bunch of cuttings, all told; and I can at this date scarcely envisage the callous rationalism with which I set them aside. But I was then convinced that young Wilcox had known of the older matters mentioned by the professor.

II. The Tale of Inspector Legrasse.
The older matters which had made the sculptor's dream and bas-relief so significant to my uncle formed the subject of the second half of his long manuscript. Once before, it appears, Professor Angell had seen the hellish outlines of the nameless monstrosity, puzzled over the unknown hieroglyphics, and heard the ominous syllables which can be rendered only as "Cthulhu"; and all this in so stirring and horrible a connexion that it is small wonder he pursued young Wilcox with queries and demands for data.

This earlier experience had come in 1908, seventeen years before, when the American Archaeological Society held its annual meeting in St. Louis. Professor Angell, as befitted one of his authority and attainments, had had a prominent part in all the deliberations; and was one of the first to be approached by the several outsiders who took advantage of the convocation to offer questions for correct answering and problems for expert solution.

The chief of these outsiders, and in a short time the focus of interest for the entire meeting, was a commonplace-looking middle-aged man who had travelled all the way from New Orleans for certain special information unobtainable from any local source. His name was John Raymond Legrasse, and he was by profession an Inspector of Police. With him he bore the subject of his visit, a grotesque, repulsive, and apparently very ancient stone statuette whose origin he was at a loss to determine. It must not be fancied that Inspector Legrasse had the least interest in archaeology. On the contrary, his wish for enlightenment was prompted by purely professional considerations. The statuette, idol, fetish, or whatever it was, had been captured some months before in the wooded swamps south of New Orleans during a raid on a supposed voodoo meeting; and so singular and hideous were the rites connected with it, that the police could not but realise that they had stumbled on a dark cult totally unknown to them, and infinitely more diabolic than even the blackest of the African voodoo circles. Of its origin, apart from the erratic and unbelievable tales extorted from the captured members, absolutely nothing was to be discovered; hence the anxiety of the police for any antiquarian lore which might help them to place the frightful symbol, and through it track down the cult to its fountain-head.

Inspector Legrasse was scarcely prepared for the sensation which his offering created. One sight of the thing had been enough to throw the assembled men of science into a state of tense excitement, and they lost no time in crowding around him to gaze at the diminutive figure whose utter strangeness and air of genuinely abysmal antiquity hinted so potently at unopened and archaic vistas. No recognised school of sculpture had animated this terrible object, yet centuries and even thousands of years seemed recorded in its dim and greenish surface of unplaceable stone.

The figure, which was finally passed slowly from man to man for close and careful study, was between seven and eight inches in height, and of exquisitely artistic workmanship. It represented a monster of vaguely anthropoid outline, but with an octopus-like head whose face was a mass of feelers, a scaly, rubbery-looking body, prodigious claws on hind and fore feet, and long, narrow wings behind. This thing, which seemed instinct with a fearsome and unnatural malignancy, was of a somewhat bloated corpulence, and squatted evilly on a rectangular block or pedestal covered with undecipherable characters. The tips of the wings touched the back edge of the block, the seat occupied the centre, whilst the long, curved claws of the doubled-up, crouching hind legs gripped the front edge and extended a quarter of the way clown toward the bottom of the pedestal. The cephalopod head was bent forward, so that the ends of the facial feelers brushed the backs of huge fore paws which clasped the croucher's elevated knees. The aspect of the whole was abnormally life-like, and the more subtly fearful because its source was so totally unknown. Its vast, awesome, and incalculable age was unmistakable; yet not one link did it shew with any known type of art belonging to civilisation's youth - or indeed to any other time. Totally separate and apart, its very material was a mystery; for the soapy, greenish-black stone with its golden or iridescent flecks and striations resembled nothing familiar to geology or mineralogy. The characters along the base were equally baffling; and no member present, despite a representation of half the world's expert learning in this field, could form the least notion of even their remotest linguistic kinship. They, like the subject and material, belonged to something horribly remote and distinct from mankind as we know it. something frightfully suggestive of old and unhallowed cycles of life in which our world and our conceptions have no part.

And yet, as the members severally shook their heads and confessed defeat at the Inspector's problem, there was one man in that gathering who suspected a touch of bizarre familiarity in the monstrous shape and writing, and who presently told with some diffidence of the odd trifle he knew. This person was the late William Channing Webb, Professor of Anthropology in Princeton University, and an explorer of no slight note. Professor Webb had been engaged, forty-eight years before, in a tour of Greenland and Iceland in search of some Runic inscriptions which he failed to unearth; and whilst high up on the West Greenland coast had encountered a singular tribe or cult of degenerate Esquimaux whose religion, a curious form of devil-worship, chilled him with its deliberate bloodthirstiness and repulsiveness. It was a faith of which other Esquimaux knew little, and which they mentioned only with shudders, saying that it had come down from horribly ancient aeons before ever the world was made. Besides nameless rites and human sacrifices there were certain queer hereditary rituals addressed to a supreme elder devil or tornasuk; and of this Professor Webb had taken a careful phonetic copy from an aged angekok or wizard-priest, expressing the sounds in Roman letters as best he knew how. But just now of prime significance was the fetish which this cult had cherished, and around which they danced when the aurora leaped high over the ice cliffs. It was, the professor stated, a very crude bas-relief of stone, comprising a hideous picture and some cryptic writing. And so far as he could tell, it was a rough parallel in all essential features of the bestial thing now lying before the meeting.

This data, received with suspense and astonishment by the assembled members, proved doubly exciting to Inspector Legrasse; and he began at once to ply his informant with questions. Having noted and copied an oral ritual among the swamp cult-worshippers his men had arrested, he besought the professor to remember as best he might the syllables taken down amongst the diabolist Esquimaux. There then followed an exhaustive comparison of details, and a moment of really awed silence when both detective and scientist agreed on the virtual identity of the phrase common to two hellish rituals so many worlds of distance apart. What, in substance, both the Esquimaux wizards and the Louisiana swamp-priests had chanted to their kindred idols was something very like this: the word-divisions being guessed at from traditional breaks in the phrase as chanted aloud:

"Ph'nglui mglw'nafh Cthulhu R'lyeh wgah'nagl fhtagn."

Legrasse had one point in advance of Professor Webb, for several among his mongrel prisoners had repeated to him what older celebrants had told them the words meant. This text, as given, ran something like this:

"In his house at R'lyeh dead Cthulhu waits dreaming."

And now, in response to a general and urgent demand, Inspector Legrasse related as fully as possible his experience with the swamp worshippers; telling a story to which I could see my uncle attached profound significance. It savoured of the wildest dreams of myth-maker and theosophist, and disclosed an astonishing degree of cosmic imagination among such half-castes and pariahs as might be least expected to possess it.

On November 1st, 1907, there had come to the New Orleans police a frantic summons from the swamp and lagoon country to the south. The squatters there, mostly primitive but good-natured descendants of Lafitte's men, were in the grip of stark terror from an unknown thing which had stolen upon them in the night. It was voodoo, apparently, but voodoo of a more terrible sort than they had ever known; and some of their women and children had disappeared since the malevolent tom-tom had begun its incessant beating far within the black haunted woods where no dweller ventured. There were insane shouts and harrowing screams, soul-chilling chants and dancing devil-flames; and, the frightened messenger added, the people could stand it no more.

So a body of twenty police, filling two carriages and an automobile, had set out in the late afternoon with the shivering squatter as a guide. At the end of the passable road they alighted, and for miles splashed on in silence through the terrible cypress woods where day never came. Ugly roots and malignant hanging nooses of Spanish moss beset them, and now and then a pile of dank stones or fragment of a rotting wall intensified by its hint of morbid habitation a depression which every malformed tree and every fungous islet combined to create. At length the squatter settlement, a miserable huddle of huts, hove in sight; and hysterical dwellers ran out to cluster around the group of bobbing lanterns. The muffled beat of tom-toms was now faintly audible far, far ahead; and a curdling shriek came at infrequent intervals when the wind shifted. A reddish glare, too, seemed to filter through pale undergrowth beyond the endless avenues of forest night. Reluctant even to be left alone again, each one of the cowed squatters refused point-blank to advance another inch toward the scene of unholy worship, so Inspector Legrasse and his nineteen colleagues plunged on unguided into black arcades of horror that none of them had ever trod before.

The region now entered by the police was one of traditionally evil repute, substantially unknown and untraversed by white men. There were legends of a hidden lake unglimpsed by mortal sight, in which dwelt a huge, formless white polypous thing with luminous eyes; and squatters whispered that bat-winged devils flew up out of caverns in inner earth to worship it at midnight. They said it had been there before d'Iberville, before La Salle, before the Indians, and before even the wholesome beasts and birds of the woods. It was nightmare itself, and to see it was to die. But it made men dream, and so they knew enough to keep away. The present voodoo orgy was, indeed, on the merest fringe of this abhorred area, but that location was bad enough; hence perhaps the very place of the worship had terrified the squatters more than the shocking sounds and incidents.

Only poetry or madness could do justice to the noises heard by Legrasse's men as they ploughed on through the black morass toward the red glare and muffled tom-toms. There are vocal qualities peculiar to men, and vocal qualities peculiar to beasts; and it is terrible to hear the one when the source should yield the other. Animal fury and orgiastic license here whipped themselves to daemoniac heights by howls and squawking ecstacies that tore and reverberated through those nighted woods like pestilential tempests from the gulfs of hell. Now and then the less organized ululation would cease, and from what seemed a well-drilled chorus of hoarse voices would rise in sing-song chant that hideous phrase or ritual:

"Ph'nglui mglw'nafh Cthulhu R'lyeh wgah'nagl fhtagn."

Then the men, having reached a spot where the trees were thinner, came suddenly in sight of the spectacle itself. Four of them reeled, one fainted, and two were shaken into a frantic cry which the mad cacophony of the orgy fortunately deadened. Legrasse dashed swamp water on the face of the fainting man, and all stood trembling and nearly hypnotised with horror.

In a natural glade of the swamp stood a grassy island of perhaps an acre's extent, clear of trees and tolerably dry. On this now leaped and twisted a more indescribable horde of human abnormality than any but a Sime or an Angarola could paint. Void of clothing, this hybrid spawn were braying, bellowing, and writhing about a monstrous ring-shaped bonfire; in the centre of which, revealed by occasional rifts in the curtain of flame, stood a great granite monolith some eight feet in height; on top of which, incongruous in its diminutiveness, rested the noxious carven statuette. From a wide circle of ten scaffolds set up at regular intervals with the flame-girt monolith as a centre hung, head downward, the oddly marred bodies of the helpless squatters who had disappeared. It was inside this circle that the ring of worshippers jumped and roared, the general direction of the mass motion being from left to right in endless Bacchanal between the ring of bodies and the ring of fire.

It may have been only imagination and it may have been only echoes which induced one of the men, an excitable Spaniard, to fancy he heard antiphonal responses to the ritual from some far and unillumined spot deeper within the wood of ancient legendry and horror. This man, Joseph D. Galvez, I later met and questioned; and he proved distractingly imaginative. He indeed went so far as to hint of the faint beating of great wings, and of a glimpse of shining eyes and a mountainous white bulk beyond the remotest trees but I suppose he had been hearing too much native superstition.

Actually, the horrified pause of the men was of comparatively brief duration. Duty came first; and although there must have been nearly a hundred mongrel celebrants in the throng, the police relied on their firearms and plunged determinedly into the nauseous rout. For five minutes the resultant din and chaos were beyond description. Wild blows were struck, shots were fired, and escapes were made; but in the end Legrasse was able to count some forty-seven sullen prisoners, whom he forced to dress in haste and fall into line between two rows of policemen. Five of the worshippers lay dead, and two severely wounded ones were carried away on improvised stretchers by their fellow-prisoners. The image on the monolith, of course, was carefully removed and carried back by Legrasse.

Examined at headquarters after a trip of intense strain and weariness, the prisoners all proved to be men of a very low, mixed-blooded, and mentally aberrant type. Most were seamen, and a sprinkling of Negroes and mulattoes, largely West Indians or Brava Portuguese from the Cape Verde Islands, gave a colouring of voodooism to the heterogeneous cult. But before many questions were asked, it became manifest that something far deeper and older than Negro fetishism was involved. Degraded and ignorant as they were, the creatures held with surprising consistency to the central idea of their loathsome faith.

They worshipped, so they said, the Great Old Ones who lived ages before there were any men, and who came to the young world out of the sky. Those Old Ones were gone now, inside the earth and under the sea; but their dead bodies had told their secrets in dreams to the first men, who formed a cult which had never died. This was that cult, and the prisoners said it had always existed and always would exist, hidden in distant wastes and dark places all over the world until the time when the great priest Cthulhu, from his dark house in the mighty city of R'lyeh under the waters, should rise and bring the earth again beneath his sway. Some day he would call, when the stars were ready, and the secret cult would always be waiting to liberate him.

Meanwhile no more must be told. There was a secret which even torture could not extract. Mankind was not absolutely alone among the conscious things of earth, for shapes came out of the dark to visit the faithful few. But these were not the Great Old Ones. No man had ever seen the Old Ones. The carven idol was great Cthulhu, but none might say whether or not the others were precisely like him. No one could read the old writing now, but things were told by word of mouth. The chanted ritual was not the secret - that was never spoken aloud, only whispered. The chant meant only this: "In his house at R'lyeh dead Cthulhu waits dreaming."

Only two of the prisoners were found sane enough to be hanged, and the rest were committed to various institutions. All denied a part in the ritual murders, and averred that the killing had been done by Black Winged Ones which had come to them from their immemorial meeting-place in the haunted wood. But of those mysterious allies no coherent account could ever be gained. What the police did extract, came mainly from the immensely aged mestizo named Castro, who claimed to have sailed to strange ports and talked with undying leaders of the cult in the mountains of China.

Old Castro remembered bits of hideous legend that paled the speculations of theosophists and made man and the world seem recent and transient indeed. There had been aeons when other Things ruled on the earth, and They had had great cities. Remains of Them, he said the deathless Chinamen had told him, were still be found as Cyclopean stones on islands in the Pacific. They all died vast epochs of time before men came, but there were arts which could revive Them when the stars had come round again to the right positions in the cycle of eternity. They had, indeed, come themselves from the stars, and brought Their images with Them.

These Great Old Ones, Castro continued, were not composed altogether of flesh and blood. They had shape - for did not this star-fashioned image prove it? - but that shape was not made of matter. When the stars were right, They could plunge from world to world through the sky; but when the stars were wrong, They could not live. But although They no longer lived, They would never really die. They all lay in stone houses in Their great city of R'lyeh, preserved by the spells of mighty Cthulhu for a glorious surrection when the stars and the earth might once more be ready for Them. But at that time some force from outside must serve to liberate Their bodies. The spells that preserved them intact likewise prevented Them from making an initial move, and They could only lie awake in the dark and think whilst uncounted millions of years rolled by. They knew all that was occurring in the universe, for Their mode of speech was transmitted thought. Even now They talked in Their tombs. When, after infinities of chaos, the first men came, the Great Old Ones spoke to the sensitive among them by moulding their dreams; for only thus could Their language reach the fleshly minds of mammals.

Then, whispered Castro, those first men formed the cult around tall idols which the Great Ones shewed them; idols brought in dim eras from dark stars. That cult would never die till the stars came right again, and the secret priests would take great Cthulhu from His tomb to revive His subjects and resume His rule of earth. The time would be easy to know, for then mankind would have become as the Great Old Ones; free and wild and beyond good and evil, with laws and morals thrown aside and all men shouting and killing and revelling in joy. Then the liberated Old Ones would teach them new ways to shout and kill and revel and enjoy themselves, and all the earth would flame with a holocaust of ecstasy and freedom. Meanwhile the cult, by appropriate rites, must keep alive the memory of those ancient ways and shadow forth the prophecy of their return.

In the elder time chosen men had talked with the entombed Old Ones in dreams, but then something happened. The great stone city R'lyeh, with its monoliths and sepulchres, had sunk beneath the waves; and the deep waters, full of the one primal mystery through which not even thought can pass, had cut off the spectral intercourse. But memory never died, and the high-priests said that the city would rise again when the stars were right. Then came out of the earth the black spirits of earth, mouldy and shadowy, and full of dim rumours picked up in caverns beneath forgotten sea-bottoms. But of them old Castro dared not speak much. He cut himself off hurriedly, and no amount of persuasion or subtlety could elicit more in this direction. The size of the Old Ones, too, he curiously declined to mention. Of the cult, he said that he thought the centre lay amid the pathless desert of Arabia, where Irem, the City of Pillars, dreams hidden and untouched. It was not allied to the European witch-cult, and was virtually unknown beyond its members. No book had ever really hinted of it, though the deathless Chinamen said that there were double meanings in the Necronomicon of the mad Arab Abdul Alhazred which the initiated might read as they chose, especially the much-discussed couplet:

That is not dead which can eternal lie,
And with strange aeons even death may die.

Legrasse, deeply impressed and not a little bewildered, had inquired in vain concerning the historic affiliations of the cult. Castro, apparently, had told the truth when he said that it was wholly secret. The authorities at Tulane University could shed no light upon either cult or image, and now the detective had come to the highest authorities in the country and met with no more than the Greenland tale of Professor Webb.

The feverish interest aroused at the meeting by Legrasse's tale, corroborated as it was by the statuette, is echoed in the subsequent correspondence of those who attended; although scant mention occurs in the formal publications of the society. Caution is the first care of those accustomed to face occasional charlatanry and imposture. Legrasse for some time lent the image to Professor Webb, but at the latter's death it was returned to him and remains in his possession, where I viewed it not long ago. It is truly a terrible thing, and unmistakably akin to the dream-sculpture of young Wilcox.

That my uncle was excited by the tale of the sculptor I did not wonder, for what thoughts must arise upon hearing, after a knowledge of what Legrasse had learned of the cult, of a sensitive young man who had dreamed not only the figure and exact hieroglyphics of the swamp-found image and the Greenland devil tablet, but had come in his dreams upon at least three of the precise words of the formula uttered alike by Esquimaux diabolists and mongrel Louisianans?. Professor Angell's instant start on an investigation of the utmost thoroughness was eminently natural; though privately I suspected young Wilcox of having heard of the cult in some indirect way, and of having invented a series of dreams to heighten and continue the mystery at my uncle's expense. The dream-narratives and cuttings collected by the professor were, of course, strong corroboration; but the rationalism of my mind and the extravagance of the whole subject led me to adopt what I thought the most sensible conclusions. So, after thoroughly studying the manuscript again and correlating the theosophical and anthropological notes with the cult narrative of Legrasse, I made a trip to Providence to see the sculptor and give him the rebuke I thought proper for so boldly imposing upon a learned and aged man.

Wilcox still lived alone in the Fleur-de-Lys Building in Thomas Street, a hideous Victorian imitation of seventeenth century Breton Architecture which flaunts its stuccoed front amidst the lovely olonial houses on the ancient hill, and under the very shadow of the finest Georgian steeple in America, I found him at work in his rooms, and at once conceded from the specimens scattered about that his genius is indeed profound and authentic. He will, I believe, some time be heard from as one of the great decadents; for he has crystallised in clay and will one day mirror in marble those nightmares and phantasies which Arthur Machen evokes in prose, and Clark Ashton Smith makes visible in verse and in painting.

Dark, frail, and somewhat unkempt in aspect, he turned languidly at my knock and asked me my business without rising. Then I told him who I was, he displayed some interest; for my uncle had excited his curiosity in probing his strange dreams, yet had never explained the reason for the study. I did not enlarge his knowledge in this regard, but sought with some subtlety to draw him out. In a short time I became convinced ofhis absolute sincerity, for he spoke of the dreams in a manner none could mistake. They and their subconscious residuum had influenced his art profoundly, and he shewed me a morbid statue whose contours almost made me shake with the potency of its black suggestion. He could not recall having seen the original of this thing except in his own dream bas-relief, but the outlines had formed themselves insensibly under his hands. It was, no doubt, the giant shape he had raved of in delirium. That he really knew nothing of the hidden cult, save from what my uncle's relentless catechism had let fall, he soon made clear; and again I strove to think of some way in which he could possibly have received the weird impressions.

He talked of his dreams in a strangely poetic fashion; making me see with terrible vividness the damp Cyclopean city of slimy green stone - whose geometry, he oddly said, was all wrong - and hear with frightened expectancy the ceaseless, half-mental calling from underground: "Cthulhu fhtagn", "Cthulhu fhtagn."

These words had formed part of that dread ritual which told of dead Cthulhu's dream-vigil in his stone vault at R'lyeh, and I felt deeply moved despite my rational beliefs. Wilcox, I was sure, had heard of the cult in some casual way, and had soon forgotten it amidst the mass of his equally weird reading and imagining. Later, by virtue of its sheer impressiveness, it had found subconscious expression in dreams, in the bas-relief, and in the terrible statue I now beheld; so that his imposture upon my uncle had been a very innocent one. The youth was of a type, at once slightly affected and slightly ill-mannered, which I could never like, but I was willing enough now to admit both his genius and his honesty. I took leave of him amicably, and wish him all the success his talent promises.

The matter of the cult still remained to fascinate me, and at times I had visions of personal fame from researches into its origin and connexions. I visited New Orleans, talked with Legrasse and others of that old-time raiding-party, saw the frightful image, and even questioned such of the mongrel prisoners as still survived. Old Castro, unfortunately, had been dead for some years. What I now heard so graphically at first-hand, though it was really no more than a detailed confirmation of what my uncle had written, excited me afresh; for I felt sure that I was on the track of a very real, very secret, and very ancient religion whose discovery would make me an anthropologist of note. My attitude was still one of absolute materialism, as l wish it still were, and I discounted with almost inexplicable perversity the coincidence of the dream notes and odd cuttings collected by Professor Angell.

One thing I began to suspect, and which I now fear I know, is that my uncle's death was far from natural. He fell on a narrow hill street leading up from an ancient waterfront swarming with foreign mongrels, after a careless push from a Negro sailor. I did not forget the mixed blood and marine pursuits of the cult-members in Louisiana, and would not be surprised to learn of secret methods and rites and beliefs. Legrasse and his men, it is true, have been let alone; but in Norway a certain seaman who saw things is dead. Might not the deeper inquiries of my uncle after encountering the sculptor's data have come to sinister ears?. I think Professor Angell died because he knew too much, or because he was likely to learn too much. Whether I shall go as he did remains to be seen, for I have learned much now.

III. The Madness from the Sea
If heaven ever wishes to grant me a boon, it will be a total effacing of the results of a mere chance which fixed my eye on a certain stray piece of shelf-paper. It was nothing on which I would naturally have stumbled in the course of my daily round, for it was an old number of an Australian journal, the Sydney Bulletin for April 18, 1925. It had escaped even the cutting bureau which had at the time of its issuance been avidly collecting material for my uncle's research.

I had largely given over my inquiries into what Professor Angell called the "Cthulhu Cult", and was visiting a learned friend in Paterson, New Jersey; the curator of a local museum and a mineralogist of note. Examining one day the reserve specimens roughly set on the storage shelves in a rear room of the museum, my eye was caught by an odd picture in one of the old papers spread beneath the stones. It was the Sydney Bulletin I have mentioned, for my friend had wide affiliations in all conceivable foreign parts; and the picture was a half-tone cut of a hideous stone image almost identical with that which Legrasse had found in the swamp.

Eagerly clearing the sheet of its precious contents, I scanned the item in detail; and was disappointed to find it of only moderate length. What it suggested, however, was of portentous significance to my flagging quest; and I carefully tore it out for immediate action. It read as follows:

MYSTERY DERELICT FOUND AT SEA

Vigilant Arrives With Helpless Armed New Zealand Yacht in Tow. One Survivor and Dead Man Found Aboard. Tale of Desperate Battle and Deaths at Sea. Rescued Seaman Refuses Particulars of Strange Experience. Odd Idol Found in His Possession. Inquiry to Follow.

The Morrison Co.'s freighter Vigilant, bound from Valparaiso, arrived this morning at its wharf in Darling Harbour, having in tow the battled and disabled but heavily armed steam yacht Alert of Dunedin, N.Z., which was sighted April 12th in S. Latitude 34°21', W. Longitude 152°17', with one living and one dead man aboard.

The Vigilant left Valparaiso March 25th, and on April 2nd was driven considerably south of her course by exceptionally heavy storms and monster waves. On April 12th the derelict was sighted; and though apparently deserted, was found upon boarding to contain one survivor in a half-delirious condition and one man who had evidently been dead for more than a week. The living man was clutching a horrible stone idol of unknown origin, about foot in height, regarding whose nature authorities at Sydney University, the Royal Society, and the Museum in College Street all profess complete bafflement, and which the survivor says he found in the cabin of the yacht, in a small carved shrine of common pattern.

This man, after recovering his senses, told an exceedingly strange story of piracy and slaughter. He is Gustaf Johansen, a Norwegian of some intelligence, and had been second mate of the two-masted schooner Emma of Auckland, which sailed for Callao February 20th with a complement of eleven men. The Emma, he says, was delayed and thrown widely south of her course by the great storm of March 1st, and on March 22nd, in S. Latitude 49°51' W. Longitude 128°34', encountered the Alert, manned by a queer and evil-looking crew of Kanakas and half-castes. Being ordered peremptorily to turn back, Capt. Collins refused; whereupon the strange crew began to fire savagely and without warning upon the schooner with a peculiarly heavy battery of brass cannon forming part of the yacht's equipment. The Emma's men shewed fight, says the survivor, and though the schooner began to sink from shots beneath the water-line they managed to heave alongside their enemy and board her, grappling with the savage crew on the yacht's deck, and being forced to kill them all, the number being slightly superior, because of their particularly abhorrent and desperate though rather clumsy mode of fighting.

Three of the Emma's men, including Capt. Collins and First Mate Green, were killed; and the remaining eight under Second Mate Johansen proceeded to navigate the captured yacht, going ahead in their original direction to see if any reason for their ordering back had existed. The next day, it appears, they raised and landed on a small island, although none is known to exist in that part of the ocean; and six of the men somehow died ashore, though Johansen is queerly reticent about this part of his story, and speaks only of their falling into a rock chasm. Later, it seems, he and one companion boarded the yacht and tried to manage her, but were beaten about by the storm of April 2nd, From that time till his rescue on the 12th the man remembers little, and he does not even recall when William Briden, his companion, died. Briden's death reveals no apparent cause, and was probably due to excitement or exposure. Cable advices from Dunedin report that the Alert was well known there as an island trader, and bore an evil reputation along the waterfront, It was owned by a curious group of half-castes whose frequent meetings and night trips to the woods attracted no little curiosity; and it had set sail in great haste just after the storm and earth tremors of March 1st. Our Auckland correspondent gives the Emma and her crew an excellent reputation, and Johansen is described as a sober and worthy man. The admiralty will institute an inquiry on the whole matter beginning tomorrow, at which every effort will be made to induce Johansen to speak more freely than he has done hitherto.

This was all, together with the picture of the hellish image; but what a train of ideas it started in my mind! Here were new treasuries of data on the Cthulhu Cult, and evidence that it had strange interests at sea as well as on land. What motive prompted the hybrid crew to order back the Emma as they sailed about with their hideous idol? What was the unknown island on which six of the Emma's crew had died, and about which the mate Johansen was so secretive? What had the vice-admiralty's investigation brought out, and what was known of the noxious cult in Dunedin? And most marvellous of all, what deep and more than natural linkage of dates was this which gave a malign and now undeniable significance to the various turns of events so carefully noted by my uncle?

March 1st - or February 28th according to the International Date Line - the earthquake and storm had come. From Dunedin the Alert and her noisome crew had darted eagerly forth as if imperiously summoned, and on the other side of the earth poets and artists had begun to dream of a strange, dank Cyclopean city whilst a young sculptor had moulded in his sleep the form of the dreaded Cthulhu. March 23rd the crew of the Emma landed on an unknown island and left six men dead; and on that date the dreams of sensitive men assumed a heightened vividness and darkened with dread of a giant monster's malign pursuit, whilst an architect had gone mad and a sculptor had lapsed suddenly into delirium! And what of this storm of April 2nd - the date on which all dreams of the dank city ceased, and Wilcox emerged unharmed from the bondage of strange fever? What of all this - and of those hints of old Castro about the sunken, star-born Old Ones and their coming reign; their faithful cult and their mastery of dreams? Was I tottering on the brink of cosmic horrors beyond man's power to bear? If so, they must be horrors of the mind alone, for in some way the second of April had put a stop to whatever monstrous menace had begun its siege of mankind's soul.

That evening, after a day of hurried cabling and arranging, I bade my host adieu and took a train for San Francisco. In less than a month I was in Dunedin; where, however, I found that little was known of the strange cult-members who had lingered in the old sea-taverns. Waterfront scum was far too common for special mentnon; though there was vague talk about one inland trip these mongrels had made, during which faint drumming and red flame were noted on the distant hills. In Auckland I learned that Johansen had returned with yellow hair turned white after a perfunctory and inconclusive questioning at Sydney, and had thereafter sold his cottage in West Street and sailed with his wife to his old home in Oslo. Of his stirring experience he would tell his friends no more than he had told the admiralty officials, and all they could do was to give me his Oslo address.

After that I went to Sydney and talked profitlessly with seamen and members of the vice-admiralty court. I saw the Alert, now sold and in commercial use, at Circular Quay in Sydney Cove, but gained nothing from its non-committal bulk. The crouching image with its cuttlefish head, dragon body, scaly wings, and hieroglyphed pedestal, was preserved in the Museum at Hyde Park; and I studied it long and well, finding it a thing of balefully exquisite workmanship, and with the same utter mystery, terrible antiquity, and unearthly strangeness of material which I had noted in Legrasse's smaller specimen. Geologists, the curator told me, had found it a monstrous puzzle; for they vowed that the world held no rock like it. Then I thought with a shudder of what Old Castro had told Legrasse about the Old Ones; "They had come from the stars, and had brought Their images with Them."

Shaken with such a mental revolution as I had never before known, I now resolved to visit Mate Johansen in Oslo. Sailing for London, I reembarked at once for the Norwegian capital; and one autumn day landed at the trim wharves in the shadow of the Egeberg. Johansen's address, I discovered, lay in the Old Town of King Harold Haardrada, which kept alive the name of Oslo during all the centuries that the greater city masqueraded as "Christiana." I made the brief trip by taxicab, and knocked with palpitant heart at the door of a neat and ancient building with plastered front. A sad-faced woman in black answered my summons, and I was stung th disappointment when she told me in halting English that Gustaf Johansen was no more.

He had not long survived his return, said his wife, for the doings sea in 1925 had broken him. He had told her no more than he told the public, but had left a long manuscript - of "technical matters" as he said - written in English, evidently in order to guard her from the peril of casual perusal. During a walk rough a narrow lane near the Gothenburg dock, a bundle of papers falling from an attic window had knocked him down. Two Lascar sailors at once helped him to his feet, but before the ambulance could reach him he was dead. Physicians found no adequate cause the end, and laid it to heart trouble and a weakened constitution. I now felt gnawing at my vitals that dark terror which will never leave me till I, too, am at rest; "accidentally" or otherwise. Persuad-g the widow that my connexion with her husband's "technical matters" was sufficient to entitle me to his manuscript, I bore the document away and began to read it on the London boat.

It was a simple, rambling thing - a naive sailor's effort at a post-facto diary - and strove to recall day by day that last awful voyage. I cannot attempt to transcribe it verbatim in all its cloudiness and redundance, but I will tell its gist enough to shew why the sound the water against the vessel's sides became so unendurable to me that I stopped my ears with cotton.

Johansen, thank God, did not know quite all, even though he saw the city and the Thing, but I shall never sleep calmly again when I think of the horrors that lurk ceaselessly behind life in time and in space, and of those unhallowed blasphemies from elder stars which dream beneath the sea, known and favoured by a nightmare cult ready and eager to loose them upon the world whenever another earthquake shall heave their monstrous stone city again to the sun and air.

Johansen's voyage had begun just as he told it to the vice-admiralty. The Emma, in ballast, had cleared Auckland on February 20th, and had felt the full force of that earthquake-born tempest which must have heaved up from the sea-bottom the horrors that filled men's dreams. Once more under control, the ship was making good progress when held up by the Alert on March 22nd, and I could feel the mate's regret as he wrote of her bombardment and sinking. Of the swarthy cult-fiends on the Alert he speaks with significant horror. There was some peculiarly abominable quality about them which made their destruction seem almost a duty, and Johansen shews ingenuous wonder at the charge of ruthlessness brought against his party during the proceedings of the court of inquiry. Then, driven ahead by curiosity in their captured yacht under Johansen's command, the men sight a great stone pillar sticking out of the sea, and in S. Latitude 47°9', W. Longitude l23°43', come upon a coastline of mingled mud, ooze, and weedy Cyclopean masonry which can be nothing less than the tangible substance of earth's supreme terror - the nightmare corpse-city of R'lyeh, that was built in measureless aeons behind history by the vast, loathsome shapes that seeped down from the dark stars. There lay great Cthulhu and his hordes, hidden in green slimy vaults and sending out at last, after cycles incalculable, the thoughts that spread fear to the dreams of the sensitive and called imperiously to the faithfull to come on a pilgrimage of liberation and restoration. All this Johansen did not suspect, but God knows he soon saw enough!

I suppose that only a single mountain-top, the hideous monolith-crowned citadel whereon great Cthulhu was buried, actually emerged from the waters. When I think of the extent of all that may be brooding down there I almost wish to kill myself forthwith. Johansen and his men were awed by the cosmic majesty of this dripping Babylon of elder daemons, and must have guessed without guidance that it was nothing of this or of any sane planet. Awe at the unbelievable size of the greenish stone blocks, at the dizzying height of the great carven monolith, and at the stupefying identity of the colossal statues and bas-reliefs with the queer image found in the shrine on the Alert, is poignantly visible in every line of the mates frightened description.

Without knowing what futurism is like, Johansen achieved something very close to it when he spoke of the city; for instead of describing any definite structure or building, he dwells only on broad impressions of vast angles and stone surfaces - surfaces too great to belong to anything right or proper for this earth, and impious with horrible images and hieroglyphs. I mention his talk about angles because it suggests something Wilcox had told me of his awful dreams. He said that the geometry of the dream-place he saw was abnormal, non-Euclidean, and loathsomely redolent of spheres and dimensions apart from ours. Now an unlettered seaman felt the same thing whilst gazing at the terrible reality.

Johansen and his men landed at a sloping mud-bank on this monstrous Acropolis, and clambered slipperily up over titan oozy blocks which could have been no mortal staircase. The very sun of heaven seemed distorted when viewed through the polarising miasma welling out from this sea-soaked perversion, and twisted menace and suspense lurked leeringly in those crazily elusive angles of carven rock where a second glance shewed concavity after the first shewed convexity.

Something very like fright had come over all the explorers before anything more definite than rock and ooze and weed was seen. Each would have fled had he not feared the scorn of the others, and it was only half-heartedly that they searched - vainly, as it proved - for some portable souvenir to bear away.

It was Rodriguez the Portuguese who climbed up the foot of the monolith and shouted of what he had found. The rest followed him, and looked curiously at the immense carved door with the now familiar squid-dragon bas-relief. It was, Johansen said, like a great barn-door; and they all felt that it was a door because of the ornate lintel, threshold, and jambs around it, though they could not decide whether it lay flat like a trap-door or slantwise like an outside cellar-door. As Wilcox would have said, the geometry of the place was all wrong. One could not be sure that the sea and the ground were horizontal, hence the relative position of everything else seemed phantasmally variable.

Briden pushed at the stone in several places without result. Then Donovan felt over it delicately around the edge, pressing each point separately as he went. He climbed interminably along the grotesque stone moulding - that is, one would call it climbing if the thing was not after all horizontal - and the men wondered how any door in the universe could be so vast. Then, very softly and slowly, the acre-great lintel began to give inward at the top; and they saw that it was balauced

Donovan slid or somehow propelled himself down or along the jamb and rejoined his fellows, and everyone watched the queer recession of the monstrously carven portal. In this phantasy of prismatic distortion it moved anomalously in a diagonal way, so that all the rules of matter and perspective seemed upset.

The aperture was black with a darkness almost material. That tenebrousness was indeed a positive quality; for it obscured such parts of the inner walls as ought to have been revealed, and actually burst forth like smoke from its aeon-long imprisonment, visibly darkening the sun as it slunk away into the shrunken and gibbous sky on flapping membraneous wings. The odour rising from the newly opened depths was intolerable, and at length the quick-eared Hawkins thought he heard a nasty, slopping sound down there. Everyone listened, and everyone was listening still when It lumbered slobberingly into sight and gropingly squeezed Its gelatinous green immensity through the black doorway into the tainted outside air of that poison city of madness.

Poor Johansen's handwriting almost gave out when he wrote of this. Of the six men who never reached the ship, he thinks two perished of pure fright in that accursed instant. The Thing cannot be described - there is no language for such abysms of shrieking and immemorial lunacy, such eldritch contradictions of all matter, force, and cosmic order. A mountain walked or stumbled. God! What wonder that across the earth a great architect went mad, and poor Wilcox raved with fever in that telepathic instant? The Thing of the idols, the green, sticky spawn of the stars, had awaked to claim his own. The stars were right again, and what an age-old cult had failed to do by design, a band of innocent sailors had done by accident. After vigintillions of years great Cthulhu was loose again, and ravening for delight.

Three men were swept up by the flabby claws before anybody turned. God rest them, if there be any rest in the universe. They were Donovan, Guerrera, and Angstrom. Parker slipped as the other three were plunging frenziedly over endless vistas of green-crusted rock to the boat, and Johansen swears he was swallowed up by an angle of masonry which shouldn't have been there; an angle which was acute, but behaved as if it were obtuse. So only Briden and Johansen reached the boat, and pulled desperately for the Alert as the mountainous monstrosity flopped down the slimy stones and hesitated, floundering at the edge of the water.

Steam had not been suffered to go down entirely, despite the departure of all hands for the shore; and it was the work of only a few moments of feverish rushing up and down between wheel and engines to get the Alert under way. Slowly, amidst the distorted horrors of that indescribable scene, she began to churn the lethal waters; whilst on the masonry of that charnel shore that was not of earth the titan Thing from the stars slavered and gibbered like Polypheme cursing the fleeing ship of Odysseus. Then, bolder than the storied Cyclops, great Cthulhu slid greasily into the water and began to pursue with vast wave-raising strokes of cosmic potency. Briden looked back and went mad, laughing shrilly as he kept on laughing at intervals till death found him one night in the cabin whilst Johansen was wandering deliriously.

But Johansen had not given out yet. Knowing that the Thing could surely overtake the Alert until steam was fully up, he resolved on a desperate chance; and, setting the engine for full speed, ran lightning-like on deck and reversed the wheel. There was a mighty eddying and foaming in the noisome brine, and as the steam mounted higher and higher the brave Norwegian drove his vessel head on against the pursuing jelly which rose above the unclean froth like the stern of a daemon galleon. The awful squid-head with writhing feelers came nearly up to the bowsprit of the sturdy yacht, but johansen drove on relentlessly. There was a bursting as of an exploding bladder, a slushy nastiness as of a cloven sunfish, a stench as of a thousand opened graves, and a sound that the chronicler could not put on paper. For an instant the ship was befouled by an acrid and blinding green cloud, and then there was only a venomous seething astern; where - God in heaven! - the scattered plasticity of that nameless sky-spawn was nebulously recombining in its hateful original form, whilst its distance widened every second as the Alert gained impetus from its mounting steam.

That was all. After that Johansen only brooded over the idol in the cabin and attended to a few matters of food for himself and the laughing maniac by his side. He did not try to navigate after the first bold flight, for the reaction had taken something out of his soul. Then came the storm of April 2nd, and a gathering of the clouds about his consciousness. There is a sense of spectral whirling through liquid gulfs of infinity, of dizzying rides through reeling universes on a comets tail, and of hysterical plunges from the pit to the moon and from the moon back again to the pit, all livened by a cachinnating chorus of the distorted, hilarious elder gods and the green, bat-winged mocking imps of Tartarus.

Out of that dream came rescue-the Vigilant, the vice-admiralty court, the streets of Dunedin, and the long voyage back home to the old house by the Egeberg. He could not tell - they would think him mad. He would write of what he knew before death came, but his wife must not guess. Death would be a boon if only it could blot out the memories.

That was the document I read, and now I have placed it in the tin box beside the bas-relief and the papers of Professor Angell. With it shall go this record of mine - this test of my own sanity, wherein is pieced together that which I hope may never be pieced together again. I have looked upon all that the universe has to hold of horror, and even the skies of spring and the flowers of summer must ever afterward be poison to me. But I do not think my life will be long. As my uncle went, as poor Johansen went, so I shall go. I know too much, and the cult still lives.

Cthulhu still lives, too, I suppose, again in that chasm of stone which has shielded him since the sun was young. His accursed city is sunken once more, for the Vigilant sailed over the spot after the April storm; but his ministers on earth still bellow and prance and slay around idol-capped monoliths in lonely places. He must have been trapped by the sinking whilst within his black abyss, or else the world would by now be screaming with fright and frenzy. Who knows the end? What has risen may sink, and what has sunk may rise. Loathsomeness waits and dreams in the deep, and decay spreads over the tottering cities of men. A time will come - but I must not and cannot think! Let me pray that, if I do not survive this manuscript, my executors may put caution before audacity and see that it meets no other eye.
__________________
Ph'nglui mglw'nafh Cthulhu R'lyeh wgah'nagl fhtagn
 
Theory of Karma

Evaluating the Theory of Karma
"This is only a matter of belief. Can it be proved?" declared the barrister. "Yes, by the oral and written testimony of those who have acquired the eye to see what is happening in the astral planes above," the Great Master replied.

"Has any disciple here got that eye, so that he could tell us any of his experiences?" asked the barrister.

"There are a number of such people here," the Great Master said, "but they would not like to be brought into the limelight."

"There is no question of their gaining fame. It would just satisfy my curiosity about the subject," the barrister persisted.

"They would simply relate their experiences and tell what they have seen. How would that satisfy you that they are telling the truth?" asked the Great Master.

"I would be satisfied by their testimony," the barrister replied.

"Then why not believe my testimony," the Great Master asked, smiling.

At this everyone laughed.

"All right," the Great Master continued, "Daryai Lal will take you to a lady who has recently had such experiences."

...Bibi Rakhi then described her experiences, which I translated into English for the benefit of those who did not fully understand her language. After her narrative they were thoroughly convinced.

Great Master, 100-101

To the clairvoyant eye this astral body, which has the exact likeness of the physical body from which it has departed, is visible.

San Keshavadas, 27

How do we know whether or not the doctrine of karma and reincarnation is correct? Is it a matter of faith, of paranormal perception, or of reason? Opinions on this topic vary. In the book of essays Dimensions in Karma, Pratima Bowes concludes that "Rebirth then remains a matter of belief and its factuality cannot be proved" (p. 186). In the same volume, Karl H. Potter argues that in the Hindu classics, rebirth and karma "are understood in very much the sprit in which a scientific theory is understood" (p. 134).

Following are some factors that might bear upon our acceptance of this doctrine.

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Paranormal Knowledge
To begin with, it is important to recognize that knowledge through paranormal sources is a recognized part of the traditional theory of yoga. Thus, Patanjali says:

The knowledge which is gained from inference and the study of scriptures is knowledge of one kind. But the knowledge which is gained from samadhi is of a much higher order. It goes beyond inferences and scriptures.
Patanjali I:49

Patanjali gives a long list of the types of knowledge that a yogi can gain through meditation on particular objects.

The knowledge-status of such paranormal perceptions is slightly different from those experiences we call "divine revelations" in the West. Revelations seem to be given at unpredictable intervals to people whom God has chosen for His own inscrutable reasons. In yoga, by contrast, psychic powers are considered a normal side-effect of advanced states of meditation, and at least in principle, are attainable by anyone.

Whether they are attainable by everyone in practice is another question. People who attempt meditation and other spiritual disciplines experience varying degrees of progress and success. Patanjali attributes the speed of progress to the intensity of effort that the student puts forth. However, karma from past lives and the effects of divine grace are often also cited as factors affecting the student's progress. One thing that all teachers seem to agree on is that very few people reach enlightenment quickly.

As a result, we cannot expect to experience truly advanced states of meditation ourselves unless we are unusually fortunate or willing to dedicate years or decades of our lives to fairly intense disciplines. Even then, there is no guarantee of success in a single lifetime. So it would be difficult to make that commitment unless you were fairly confident that the result would, in the end, be worth the trouble.

The Perception of Karma
Having established that psychic perceptions are an accepted means of attaining knowledge in Hindu tradition, we may ask whether such perceptions are in fact the basis of the theory or doctrine of karma.

It is certainly true that various modern Hindu sages have had experiences which, for them, confirmed the doctrine of rebirth. Swami Muktananda, in his autobiography Play of Consciousness, describes visions in which he visited several of the heavens and hells that are described by Hindu scriptures. Similarly, Mother Meera has painted a number of pictures of the after-life journey of her late friend Mr. Reddy. In her book Answers, Meera says "I simply paint what I see."

The Role of Scripture
Yet it is also true that the Hindu tradition seems to regard its oldest scriptures with greatest reverence, with successively less authority being ascribed to more and more modern writings. It is curious, for example, on reading Sankaracarya's commentary on the Brahma-Sutras, to discover how he makes himself subservient to the Upanisads and Vedas. Since Sankaracarya is one of the most prominent thinkers in the history of Hindu religion, and many of his own writings are viewed by devotees as scriptures themselves, you might think he would have recourse to some of his own perceptions when he interprets older scriptures. But he makes at least a pretense of regarding the authority of those scriptures as absolute, and he justifies his views strictly by citing appropriate scriptural references.

What are we supposed to make of this? That Sankaracarya was less enlightened or less psychically powerful than the authors of the Upanisads? He may have conceived himself to be so. However, his writing is filled with such elaborate rhetorical devices that this subservience could also be a pretense, assumed for the role of convincing readers who have more faith in the scriptures than they do in him. Others who have studied the rest of Sankaracarya's writings could comment on this issue more effectively. But the point remains that the old scriptures seem to be regarded more highly than the revelations of living masters.

Second-Hand Knowledge
The upshot is that, for ordinary people, the belief in reincarnation is based on trust in others who are thought to have superior access to spiritual knowledge. Those others might be ancient authors of the scriptures or the modern sages whose experiences confirm the scriptures.

For most ordinary people, then, the question becomes one of: Why should I trust the assertions made by these gurus? What reason do I have to believe that their teachings are correct? Following are some of the criteria we can apply when evaluating the doctrines of those who speak from revelation or psychic perception:

Consistency and Explanatory Power
Correctness of related teachings
Intuitive "Rightness"
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Consistency and Explanatory Power
Internal Consistency
So far as I have been able to determine, the doctrine of karma is expounded by Hindu sources in a very incomplete manner. "Mysterious are the ways of karma" is one of the frequent refrains in writings upon this subject. The various "problems" I have addressed in this work arise precisely because of the incomplete manner in which the theory is described. Before I could reach any conclusions on the consistency of the theory, I had to infer a more complete version of the theory.

The good news is that fundamental contradictions seem to be lacking, though some Hindu teachers differ in their interpretation of the details. Even when you infer a more complete theory to fill in the gaps, no irreconcilable contradictions come to light.

Consistency with Other Teachers
What I mean by this heading is, "Consistency with other teachers who base their teachings on divine revelations or psychic experiences." If this means of knowledge is reliable, then seemingly it should produce consistent results among people around the world.

Joseph Head and S. L. Cranston, in their book Reincarnation: An East-West Anthology, cite examples of reincarnational belief from around the world. Still, there is no disguising the fact that not everyone believes in reincarnation and not all religions teach it. It is possible that the enlightened souls within each religious tradition have realized the truth of reincarnation. If this is so, then they apparently have not publicized this truth for some reason. Such a hidden unity of belief among religious masters is quite possible, but so far as I know, there is no objective evidence for it. For example, the biblical passages sometimes cited as referring to reincarnation can all be interpreted in other ways.

Another possibility is the One True Religion theory; the notion that one religion is correct, while all others are false. You could pick Hinduism as the correct religion and reject all the others; or you could say that Hinduism is more correct than other religions, which are partially correct to whatever extent they resemble Hinduism. However, it would be difficult to do this since Hinduism itself contains a number of problematical features.

Explanatory Power
What does the doctrine of karma and rebirth explain? Some of the candidates are:

Why bad things sometimes happen to good people, and why good things sometimes happen to bad people.
Why we are born with instinctive types of knowledge.
Why some people are born with extraordinary talents.
Why we experience "deja vu."
Why yogis have visions of heavens, hells, etc.
Why some people have memories of past births.
However, all of these items are explainable in other ways, viz.:

Why bad things sometimes happen to good people, and why good things sometimes happen to bad people.
Explanation: Because there is no personal God and there is no moral order to the universe. (There are other explanations for this dilemma, but the no-God explanation is obviously the simplest one. Other theories tend to require a good deal of theological tap-dancing.)

Why we are born with instinctive types of knowledge.
Explanation: The theory of evolution, proposed by Darwin and refined by later scientists, is taken by many to be an adequate explanation of this point.

Why some people are born with extraordinary talents.
Explanation: Largely the same as previous item. Additionally, studies have shown that "child prodigies" usually get a lot of encouragement and support from their parents. A combination of genetic endowment and appropriate environment could be at work.

Why we experience "deja vu" -- the sense of having visited a place before.
Explanation: An experience so vague in its nature might have many possible explanations, whether based on neurological phenomena, childhood memories that are "similar" but not identical, etc.

Why yogis have visions of heavens, hells, etc.
Explanation: In advanced meditation, one's mind is subjected to a type of sensory deprivation. That is, one withdraws to a quiet place and sits motionless, eyes usually closed. One then usually attempts to focus attention on one simple, repetitive thought or sensation.

In conditions of prolonged sensory deprivation, people typically begin to hallucinate. The content of such hallucinations could easily be influenced by cultural and religious indoctrination.

Why some people have spontaneous or recovered memories of past births.
Explanation: Wishful thinking, hallucination, and fraud could all play a role in such cases. With regard to the topic of "hypnotic regressions," it is worth noting that a hypnotist can instill false beliefs in susceptible subjects. It is equally possible that a hypnotist could induce the mind to generate a general type of fantasy that "feels" subjectively real.

On the other hand, the famous cases of reincarnation all involve proofs. These consist of the person displaying knowledge of past events that the person "could not possibly have known," but which are confirmed by later research. The difficulty in principle here is in establishing that someone "could not have known" something through normal means. The book Arthur C. Clarke's World of Strange Powers recounts a fascinating case of a young woman who turned out to have had access to historical information that she consciously forgot, but which her subconscious was able to draw upon when constructing a "past life" under hypnosis.

Therefore, there is nothing explained by the doctrine of karma and rebirth that cannot be explained by other means. Nevertheless, this doctrine might be preferable if it has advantages compared to those other explanations. For example, you might find some cases of past-life recollections to be so remarkable and compelling as to demand belief. In any case, let us postpone that question for the moment and return to it later.

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Correctness of Related Teachings
The problematical features of Hinduism could be said to fall into two categories: instances of dubious values, and instances of incorrect knowledge claims.

Note: This section could be offensive to Hindus or others strongly sympathetic to this religion. Please understand that it is not my aim to devalue the religion as a whole, but merely to show that reasonable doubt attaches to some particular doctrines advocated by Hindu scriptures. This doubt has bearing on the question of whether the theory of karma is itself a reliable one.

Dubious Values
In one sense, values might seem to be beyond criticism, because values are statements of preference rather than of fact. However, values can work at cross purposes to each other. If you value the happiness of humanity in general, then some specific elements of Hinduism are of concern as they seem to militate against human happiness. Following are some examples:

Caste System
Sacred Animals
Status of Widows
Knowledge Claims
Much of Hindu metaphysics deals with issues that are not easily proven or disproven. However, like the Judeo-Christian scriptures, the Hindu scriptures do contain some theories about the physical universe that we can compare with our current knowledge. The topics we can examine in this way include:

World Cycles
Geography
Astronomy and the Heavens
Liberal and Fundamentalist Views
Faced with apparent discrepancies in scripture, the devotee often retreats either to a liberal or a fundamentalist position, as described under:

Symbolic, Figurative, or Metaphorical Interpretations
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Caste System
The first sticking point for a Westerner studying Hinduism is generally the caste system. Thus, in one of the most famous of the Vedic hymns, we read:

When they divided the Purusa, into how many parts did they arrange him? What was his mouth? What his two arms? What are his thighs and feet called? The brahmin was his mouth, his two arms were made the rajanya (warrior), his two thighs the vaisya (trader and agriculturalist), from his feet the sudra (servile class) was born.
— Purusa Suktam, quoted in Radhakrishan and Moore, A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy

The Bhagavad Gita goes further to say:

Better is one's own dharma, though imperfectly performed, than the dharma of another well performed. Better is death in the doing of one's own dharma: the dharma of another is fraught with peril.
— Bhagavad Gita 3:35

The above is in the context of Krishna urging Arjuna to do battle because it is his duty as a kshatriya (member of the warrior caste). A remarkable point is that Krishna appears to acknowledge that one's innate talents can differ from one's caste, but that being true to one's caste is nevertheless more important. Surely such values would lead to a fantastic waste of talent.

The following quote perhaps gives us an idea of what Krishna meant by "fraught with peril." This passage from the Laws of Manu gives the karmic punishments of those who stray from the duties of each of the four castes: priest, ruler (or warrior), commoner, and servant.

But those classes who slip away from their own innate activities when they are not in extremity pass through evil transmigrations and then become the menial servants of aliens. A priest who has slipped from his own duty becomes a "comet-mouth" ghost who eats vomit; a ruler becomes a "false-stinking" ghost who eats impure things and corpses. A commoner who has slipped from his duty becomes a ghost "who sees by an eye in his anus", eating pus; a servant becomes a "moth-eater" ghost.
— The Laws of Manu, 12:70-72

The Laws of Manu also states that sudras must not read the Vedas. On the other hand, a correspondent of mine named Vishal Agarwal informs me that the Yajurveda, White or Vajasneyi Samhita, contains the following verse, which clearly mentions instructing sudras about the Word:

I do hereby address this salutary speech for the benefit of humanity—for the Brahmanas, the Kshatriyas, the Shudras, the Vaishyas, for them who are your own and the foreignor alike.
—Yajurveda XXVI.2

Vishal mentions as well the Hindu dictum that "A smriti opposed to shruti is invalid." In other words, in Hinduism the Vedas, which are the oldest scriptures, are also regarded as the highest ones, the ones most directly revealed by God. Other scriptures are considered valid only insofar as they are consistent with the Vedas.

Some modern Hindu teachers assert that the caste system, in its original form, was not hereditary. Thus, Paramahansa Yogananda says:

"Inclusion in one of the four castes originally depended not on a man's birth but on his natural capabilities as demonstrated the by goal in life he elected to achieve," an article in East-West for January, 1935 tells us. "This goal could be (1) kama, desire, activity of the life of the senses (Sudra stage), (2) artha, gain, fulfilling but controlling the desires (Vaisya stage), (3) dharma, self-discipline, the life of responsibility and right action (Kshatriya stage), (4) moksha, liberation, the life of spirituality and religious teaching (Brahmin stage). These four castes render service to humanity by (1) body, (2) mind, (3) will power, (4) Spirit.

"These four stages have their correspondence in the eternal gunas or qualities of nature, tamas, rajas, and sattwa: obstruction, activity, and expansion... Thus has nature marked every man with his caste, by the predominance in himself of one, or the mixture of two, of the gunas. Of course every human being has all three gunas in varying proportions. The guru will be able rightly to determine a man's caste or evolutionary status."...

Serious evils arose when the caste system became hardened through the centuries into a hereditary halter. India, self-governing since 1947, is making slow but sure progress in restoring the ancient values of caste, based solely on natural qualification and not on birth.
— Paramahansa Yogananda, Autobiography of a Yogi

Another kindly correspondent, named Michael Kagan, has drawn my attention to the statements of the modern Hindu philosopher Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan about the caste system, such as the following:

The fourfold order is the caste system. The emphasis is on guna (aptitude) and karma (function), and not jati (birth). The varna, or the order to which we belong, is independent of sex, birth, and breeding. — A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy

Radhakrishnan cites a number of scriptural references to support this viewpoint. Thus, he mentions the story of Satyakama Jabala. In the story, a young man of uncertain caste goes to ask a guru for instruction. The guru asks of what family the young man is.

"I do not know this, Sir, of what family I am. I asked my mother. She answered me: 'In my youth, when I went about a great deal serving as a maid, I got you. So I do not know this, of what family you are. However, I am Jabala by name; you are Satyakama by name.' So I am Satyakama Jabala, sir."

To him he then said: "A non-brahmin would not be able to explain thus. Bring the fuel, my dear. I will receive you as a pupil. You have not deviated from the truth."
— Chandogya Upanisad, IV.iv.1-5; from A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy

In another Upanisad, we find

Then, who, verily is the Brahmana? He who, after directly perceiving, like the amalaka fruit in the palm of one's hand, the Self, without a second, devoid of distinctions of birth, attribute, and action, devoid of all faults... who functions as the indwelling spirit of all beings... and through the fulfilment of his nature, becomes rid of the faults of desire, attachment, etc., and endowed with qualities of tranquility... He alone who is possessed of these qualities is the Brahmana. This is the view of the Vedic texts and tradition, ancient lore and history.
— Vajrasucika Upanisad, in The Principal Upanisads

In his notes to this Upanisad, Radhakrishnan also quotes similar sentiments from various portions of the Mahabharata:

Listen about caste, Yaksa dear, not study, not learning is the cause of rebornness. Conduct is the basis, there is no doubt about it.
— Mahabharata, Aranya-parva 312.106

O King of serpents, he in whom are manifest truthfulness, charity, forbearance, good conduct, non-injury, austerity and compassion is a Brahmana according to the sacred tradition.
— Mahabharata, Aranya-parva 180.20

O serpent he in whom this conduct is manifest is a Brahmana, he in whom this is absent treat all such as Sudra.
— Mahabharata, Aranya-parva 180.27

The gods consider him a Brahmana (a knower of Brahman) who has no desires, who undertakes no work, who does not salute or praise anybody, whose work has been exhausted by who himself is unchanged.
— Mahabharata, XII.269.34

Similarly, he quotes

I am a poet, my father is a doctor, my mother a grinder of corn.
— Rg-Veda, ix.112.3, in Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosphy, Volume 1

On the other hand, in the Laws of Manu we find statements that seem to explicitly link caste to heredity.

In all castes those (children) only which are begotten in the direct order on wedded wives, equal (in caste and married as) virgins, are to be considered as belonging to the same caste (as their fathers).

Men who commit adultery with the wives of others, the king shall cause to be marked by punishments which cause terror, and afterwards banish. For by (adultery) is caused a mixture of the castes among men; thence (follows) sin, which cuts up even the roots and causes the destruction of everything.
— The Laws of Manu, X.5 and VIII.352-3

How do we reconcile these conflicting impressions? Radhakrishan says:

The original Aryans all belonged to one class, every one being priest and soldier, trader and tiller of the soil. There was no privileged order of priests. The complexity of life led to a division of classes among the Aryans... As we shall see, when sacrifices assume an important role, when the increasing complexity of life rendered necessary division of life, certain families, distinguished for learning, wisdom, poetic and speculative gifts, became representatives in worship... When the Vedic religion developed into a regulated ceremonialism, these families formed themselves into a class... The rest were classed as the people or the Vaisyas. Originally occupational, the division soon became hereditary... Those who followed the learned professions, those who fought, those who traded all belonged to one whole, which was separated by a wider gulf from the conquered races... It is sometimes said that the aborigines converted and accepted by the Aryans are the Sudras, while those excluded by them are the Panchamas. It is maintained by others that the Aryans had in their own communities Sudras even before they came to the southern part of India. It is not easy to decide between these rival hypotheses.
— Indian Philosophy, Volume 1

And, again

Though originally framed on the basis of qualities, caste very soon became a matter of birth. It is hard to know who has which qualities. The only available test is birth. The confusion of birth and qualities has led to an undermining of the spiritual foundation of caste. There is no necessity why men of a particular birth should always possess the character expected of them. Since the facts of life do not answer to the logical ideal, the whole institution of caste is breaking down.
— Indian Philosophy, Volume 1

These attempts to posit a "kinder, gentler" caste system tend to leave me a bit confused. If a caste is not hereditary, then in what sense is it a caste? By the time of the Bhagavad-Gita, at least, there is evidently considerable tension related to the caste structure, since Krishna says "Better is one's own dharma, though imperfectly performed, than the dharma of another well performed." Compare this with Yogananda's "Inclusion in one of the four castes originally depended not on a man's birth but on his natural capabilities as demonstrated by the goal in life he elected to achieve." On the contrary, Krishna seems to say that you should not elect your own goals in life, but follow those that have been determined for you.

If the earlier forms of Hinduism are indeed the purest, then it would be especially interesting to determine whether the Vedas discuss the doctrine of karma and reincarnation. Unfortunately, this is a topic that apparently is interpreted differently by different scholars. I will add further information as it becomes available to me.

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Sacred Animals
The Hindu attitude of reverence toward cows is of course well known. In this connection we find:

He should never emit excrement or urine while facing the wind or looking at fire, a priest, the sun, water, or cows.
The Laws of Manu, 4:48

The punishment in hell for those who break this rule is picturesque:

Crows rip out the intestines through the anus of men who urinate in front of cows, brahmins, the sun or fire.
Vamana Purana, in Classical Hindu Mythology, p. 51

The Hindu regard for cobras is a little less well-known. In this regard, we find

The cobra is responsible for many deaths each year in India, where it is regarded with religious awe and seldom killed. (Funk & Wagnalls New Encyclopedia)

There is nothing logically inconsistent with supposing cows or cobras to be sacred. Hinduism is far from being the only religion to regard selected animals as specially sacred or specially unclean. However, when you compare various religions, you find that they do not agree about which animals are special. A Hindu incurs sin by eating beef, because cows are divine. Meanwhile, a Jew or Moslem can eat cows because they're really nothing special, but eating pork is bad because pigs are unclean. In Ancient Egypt, each county regarded a different animal as sacred, and one easy way to insult your neighbors was to eat their sacred animal. In other words, if there is any objective truth underlying most world religions, the rules about sacred and unclean animals are not part of that truth.

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Status of Widows
Like the caste system, the status of widows in Hinduism is an element that seems at first to be morally indefensible, but which becomes more complicated and difficult to define when you pursue it further. To begin with some of the worst examples, we find the following in The Laws of Manu:

A virtuous wife should never do anything displeasing to the husband who took her hand in marriage, when he is alive or dead, if she longs for her husband's world (after death) . . . She should be long-suffering until death, self-restrained, and chaste, striving (to fulfill) the unsurpassed duty of women who have one husband . . . But a woman who violates her (vow to her dead) husband because she is greedy for progeny is the object of reproach here on earth and loses the world beyond.
The Laws of Manu, 5:156,158,161

The policy with regard to widowers, however, is quite different:

When he has given the (sacrificial) fires in the final ritual to the wife who has died before him, he may marry again and kindle the fires again. He must never neglect the five (great) sacrifices, but should take a wife and live in his house, in accordance with this rule, for the second part of his life.
The Laws of Manu, 5:168-169

In discussing the punishments meted out in hell for various crimes, the Puranas yield the following insight:

Also those who remarry widows... must eat ants and worms.
Vamana Purana, in Classical Hindu Mythology, p. 51

So unfortunate was the fate of widows considered to be that we find the following cited as a benefit of chanting the Guru Gita:

It averts women's widowhood... If a widow repeats it without desire, she attains salvation. (If she repeats it) with desire, she will not become a widow in her next lifetime.
Guru Gita, v. 145-147

In addition, of course, one has heard the stories of women who were praised for their devotion because they flung themselves on their late husband's funeral pyre to burn up along with him. This practice is known as sati. A correspondent named Vishal Agarwal has provided me with the following quotes that advocate this practice or at least mention it without disapproval:

Mahabharata Adiparvan 95.65 describes the sati of Madari, the wife of Pandu (according to P. V. Kane).
Mahabharata Mausalaparvan 7.18 states that when Sri Krishna died, his wives namely Madura, Rohini, Bhadraa, and Devaki, committed sati (also according to P. V. Kane).
Vishnu Dharmasutra XXV.14 contains the statement:
On her husband's death, the widow should observe celibacy or should ascend the funeral pyre after him.

On the other hand, Vishal informs me that more liberal attitudes toward widowhood are expressed in some other scriptures, including the Vedas, which Hindus consider to be the most authoritative of their scriptures. I haven't yet had a chance to find copies of the quotations he cites. Until I do so, the following references might be of some use to serious students. According to Vishal,

Atharva Veda XVIII.3.1-4 condemns the practice of sati as follows:
Choosing her husband's realm, O man! (i.e. the dead man) this widowed woman lies next to your lifeless body, preserving faithfully the ancient law. Bestow upon her, both wealth and offspring.

O woman! (Since this man cannot bestow upon thee wealth, happiness and offspring) Come, rise unto the world of the living! Come, the man by whose side you lie is lifeless! Thy days of wifehood with this man, who wooed thee as a lover and took your hand (during the wedding ceremony) are over.

I (the sage) looked and saw the youthful maiden being escorted from the living to him who was dead. I saw them (her relatives and girlfriends) console her. I saw her being blinded by the darkness of sorrow and then, I turned her back and took her homeward.

O ye inviolable one! (the widow) Tread the path of the wise in front of thee and choose this man (another suitor) as they husband. Joyfully receive him and may the two of you mount the world of happiness.

Atharva Veda IX.5.27-29 includes a verse that translates as
Whatever woman, having first married one husband, marries another, she and the other new husband will not be separated if they offer a goat and five rice dishes illumined with religious fees.

Vishal comments: "The phrase panchaudana aga ( a goat and five rice dishes) could also mean 'the soul and the five senses' in which case the implication would be that the new husband and wife should be devoted to each other."

Rig Veda X.18.8-9 includes the following verses, the first of which duplicates one of the previously cited verses from the Atharva Veda:
Rise O Woman! Come to the world of the living. Come, the man by whose side you are lying is lifeless. Be united with this man as his wife, who holds thy hand and seeks to be thy husband.

(The new husband says) Taking the bow from the hand of the departed, let us launch a new life of valour and strength . . . Here are you my beloved, in front of me. Now we two, with virtuous and valourous children, will triumph over all who challenge us and compete with us.

Rig Veda X.40.2 includes the following verse:
O Ashwins! Where are you in the evening, where at the morning, where do you sojourn? Where do you dwell? And who is the one that brings you both into his presence, as a second husband to the couch of the widow, or the groom in front of his bride?
—Rig Veda X.40.2

Vishal notes: "In my opinion, this verse is merely a reference to widow remarriage and does not really sanction or enjoin it."

The remarriage of widows is advocated in the Vashista Dharmasutra of the Rigvedins.
In the epic Mahabharata, Sri Krishna prevents Uttara from committing sati after the death of her husband Abhimanyu. (Vishal is uncertain of the exact location of this story, but suggests the Stree or Mausala Parvans.)
The following verse is cited by P. V. Kane, in his History of Dharmashastra:
Another man is ordained for women in five calamities: a) When the husband is missing and is unheard of; b) The husband dies; c) When the husband is impotent; d) When the husband has become an ascetic; e) The husband has become depraved.
—Agnipurana 154.5-5; Parashara Smriti IV.30; and Narada Smriti V.97.

To summarize, it appears that various Hindu scriptures give conflicting viewpoints on the status and proper conduct of widows. Vishal says

What then to do with these conflicting opinions, especially since there are literally 100's of verses in the Hindu literature forbidding widow remarriage? I feel that the Vedas, which are of paramount authority for Hindus, do not forbid remarriage of widows anywhere but rather advocate. They therefore automatically abrogate all contrary injunctions of other religious literature. The Poorva Meemamsa rules for the interpretation of scripture clearly state that if two smritis clash, the two conflicting viewpoints indicate alternative practices, both being equally valid. Even according to this rule, widow remarriage is offered as an alternative to the lifelong celibacy of widows in the Smritis.

My thanks to Vishal and to anyone with further references to share on this subject.

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World Cycles
Refer to The Hindu Theory of World Cycles elsewhere in this study.

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Geography
The Puranic description of the geography of Earth is full of fabulous elements. For example,

Earth, composed of seven continents, together with the oceans extends 500,000,000 leagues across. Holy Jambudvipa lies in the middle of all the continents; in its center is said to be lofty Mt. Meru, bright as gold. Its height is 84,000 leagues, and it extends 16,000 leagues below the earth; its width at the top is 32,000 leagues, and its diameter at the base is 16,000 leagues.
Kurma Purana, in Classical Hindu Mythology, p. 52

In this quote, "league" is presumably a translation of a Sanskrit term at least loosely approximating the usual English meaning of "league" (about three miles). At this rate, Mt. Meru is something like 252,000 miles high. The tallest actual mountain on Earth is Mt. Everest, at about 29,000 ft, or less than six miles.

In the next quote we see that the impossibly high Mt. Meru is held to be the source of really existing rivers in India such as the Sita:

Ganga, the heavenly river flowing from the feet of Visnu and inundating the orb of the moon, falls all around the city of Brahma. Falling on the four regions, O twice-born ones, she subdivides into four rivers, namely Sita, Alakananda, Sucaksus and Bhadra. The river Sita flows from the atmosphere east of Mt. Meru and then through the eastern range called Bhadrasva to the sea. And each of the others does likewise: Alakananda to the South enters Bharatavarsa; Sucaksus to the West falls on Ketumala, and Bhadra to the North falls through Uttarakuru...
Kurma Purana, in Classical Hindu Mythology, p. 54

The scripture then describes nine different subcontinents, of which one (Bharatavarsa) includes or is the same as India. Eight of the subcontinents are populated by people who live paradisial lives. Their lifespans are 10,000 years apiece or more and their diet consists of sweet foods like bread-fruit and sugarcane. By contrast,

In Bharatavarsa women and men display diverse colors, worship various gods and perform many different duties. The full length of their lives is said to be a hundred years, O virtuous ones. They consume all kinds of food and live their lives according to virtue or vice... In these eight subcontinents, Kimpurusa and the others, O great sears, there is neither sorrow nor weariness, and no anxiety, hunger, or fear. And the people, healthy, unoppressed, free from all cares, ever youthful, all enjoy themselves in various ways. Only in Bharatavarsa, the wise say, and nowhere else, occur the four Ages: Krta, Treta, Dvapara and Kali.
Kurma Purana, in Classical Hindu Mythology, p. 54

Of these nine [lands], it is in Bharat-varsha only that there are sorrow, weariness, and hunger; the inhabitants of other varshas are exempt from all distress and pain, and there is in them no distinction of yugas. Bharata is the land of works, where men perform actions, winning either a place in Heaven, or release; or, it may be, rebirth in Hell, according to their merit. Bharata is, therefore, the best of Varshas; other varshas are for enjoyment alone. Happy are those who are reborn, even were they gods, as men in Bharat-varsha, for that is the way to the Supreme.
Coomaraswamy and Nivedita, 396

In this theory of geography, it is only on one subcontinent that people experience what we think of as normal human life, with its usual span of years and usual mixture of pleasure and pain. Most of the subcontinents are earthly paradises. Yet paradise is always somewhere else, on another continent far away (as proposed by Hindu geography) or in the far distant past (as proposed by the Hindu theory of world cycles).

Today the entire planet is explored, mapped, and surveyed by satellites, and no earthly paradises have come to light. You can still imagine that some hidden Shangri-La is tucked away somewhere, but it would have to be pretty small. The paradisial subcontinents proposed by Hindu geography would have been easy to imagine thousands or even hundreds of years ago, when every world map had blank stretches labeled "Terra Incognita." However, today we know that these places simply don't exist.

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Astronomy and the Heavens
The Hindu concepts of astronomy and of the celestial heavens are inextricably bound together, as we see in the following:

This earth, which is the object of the physical senses and of the knowledge based thereon, is but one of fourteen worlds or regions placed "above" and "below" it... The sphere of earth (Bhurloka), with its continents, their mountains and rivers, and with its oceans, is the seventh and lowest of the upper worlds. Beneath it are the Hells and Nether Worlds, the names of which are given below. Above the terrestrial sphere is Bhuvarloka, or the atmospheric sphere known as the antariksha, extending "from the earth to the sun," in which the Siddhas and other celestial beings (devayoni) of the upper air dwell. "From the sun to the pole star" (dhruva) is svarloka, or the heavenly sphere.
--John Woodroffe (1), 24

Note that Bhuvarloka and Svarloka are two of the heavenly realms in which we may experience the rewards of good deeds in between earthly lives. Here they are given a physical location as concentric spheres grouped around the earth like layers of an onion. The same type of image is picked up in the following text:

Bhurloka, Bhuvarloka, Svarloka, Maharloka, Janaloka, Taparloka and Satyaloka are the worlds thought to have their origin in the egg. In the old stories Bhurloka is said to stretch out as far as sun and moon radiate their beams of light, O bulls of the twice-born. As far as Bhurloka extends in width and circumference, so does Bhuvarloka spread out from the sphere of the sun, from which sphere the firmament extends upward as far as Dhruva* is located. This region is called Svarloka... The sphere of the sun lies 100,000 leagues from earth. The orb of the moon is also said to be 100,000 leagues from the sun. The whole circle of naksatras** appears the same distance from the moon. Twice this distance beyond the naksatras, O wise ones, is the planet Budha (Mercury), and Usanas (Venus) dwells the same distance from Budha. Angaraka (Mars) too is the same distance from Sukra (Venus). The priest of the gods (Brhaspati/Jupiter) resides 200,000 leagues from Bhauma (Mars), while Sauri (Saturn) is the same distance from the guru (Jupiter). This is the sphere of the planets. The sphere of the Seven Seers*** shines 100,000 leagues' distance from that. Dhruva* dwells the same number of leagues above the sphere of the seers. Dhruva is the central point of this entire wheel of luminaries in which resides the lord Dharma, Visnu Narayana.
--Kurma Purana, in Classical Hindu Mythology, pp. 46-47.

* The pole star
** The stellar constellations through which the moon appears to pass in the course of its orbit
*** The Little Dipper

There are a number of inaccuracies in this account, including:

The notion that the distance from the earth to the sun is the same as the distance from the sun to the moon. Actually, the distance between earth and sun is vastly greater than the distance from the sun to the moon.
The stars in the naksatras (lunar constellations) are said to be closer to us than are several of the planets; but actually, all stars are vastly more distant from us than all planets.
The listed distances between the planets are neither accurate nor even proportional to their actual distances.
The stars in the Little Dipper are said to be proportionally only slightly further from us than Saturn, whereas actually they are vastly more distant.
In addition to the inaccuracies, there is the strange omission of all mention of the outer planets (Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto). This omission is easy to understand if you suppose the Hindu astronomy was based on naked-eye observations; much more difficult if you suppose that such knowledge come from the infallible psychic insight of great rishis.

Note that both the descriptions above link Bhurloka and Bhuvarloka to the (inaccurate) conceptions of the physical solar system. This being the case, what confidence can we have in other scriptural statements about these lokas, or about the cycle of reincarnation that takes souls to and from these lokas?

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Symbolic, Figurative, or Metaphorical Interpretations
Faced with scriptural inaccuracies such as these, it is common for the theologian (of whatever religion) to either take a fundamentalist hard line or to suggest that certain doctrines were always intended figuratively rather than literally.

The fundamentalist hard line simply denies the truth of any scientific findings that contradict scripture. In the West, the whole controversy about teaching evolution in classrooms stems from this fundamentalist hard line, but there are fundamentalists in the East as well, as we see in the following anecdote:

When I was in India in the winter of 1954, in conversation with an Indian gentleman of just about my own age, he asked with a certain air of distance, after we had exchanged formalities, "What are you Western scholars now saying about the dating of the Vedas?"

The Vedas, you must know, are the counterparts for the Hindu of the Torah for the Jew. They are his scriptures of the most ancient date and therefore of the highest revelation.

"Well," I answered, "the dating of the Vedas has lately been reduced and is being assigned, I believe, to something like 1500 to 1000 B.C. As you probably know," I added, "there have been found in India itself the remains of an earlier civilization than the Vedic."

"Yes," said the Indian gentleman, not testily but firmly, with an air of untroubled assurance, "I know; but as an orthodox Hindu I cannot believe that there is anything in the universe earlier than the Vedas."

"Okay," said I. "Then why did you ask?"

--Joseph Campbell, p. 17

The liberal line, which interprets things figuratively, seems at first more attractive. It does not require you to believe anything known to be untrue, and it finds a residual value in those cherished teachings that are not literally true. However, there are two problems with this approach:

Although we may be able to take a teaching figuratively, how can we be sure that it was originally intended that way? Teachings that now seem too bizarre to be taken literally might have seemed quite normal and believable in the context of another culture in the distant past.
Once we start taking some doctrines figuratively, how do we know where to stop? For example, if Mt. Meru is a symbol for something other than a physical mountain, then how do we know that reincarnation is not merely a symbol for something else? Why accept one and not the other?
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Intuitive "Rightness"
Although we have been speaking in a fairly analytical way up to this point, it is well to bear in mind that, in daily life, most of our knowledge is not arrived at through analysis. It is thought by many that the intuitive faculties of the human mind can draw on much more information than we can assess analytically, and certainly there are a lot of remarkable anecdotes about the power of dreams and intuition in problem-solving. Thus, it seems worthwhile to take a look at the intuitive appeal of karma.

The Moral Order
In the first place, we have probably all had the experience of doing something we believed to be wrong, and experiencing a certain twinge. Remorse is certainly part of it, but there seems also to be a definite component of fear. On some level, we must expect to be punished, even if there is no rational reason to believe such a punishment will occur.

Hopefully we have also each had the experience of doing something unusually decent for another human being, and feeling warmed by the experience, almost as if we had earned the approval of a loving parent.

So the intuition of a moral order, somehow more definite and objective than mere social convention, is a common one in humanity. Yet in daily life we seem often to see examples of bad things happening to good people, and good things happening to bad people.

The theory of karma has a definite appeal in this area, as it proposes that we really will be rewarded or punished for our good and bad actions. In fact, in this area the theory of karma has an advantage even over Western religious ideas of an eternal Heaven and eternal Hell; because any reward or punishment of infinite duration is clearly not in proportion to one's original acts.

I once saw a show in which Bill Moyers interviewed the scholar Elaine Pagels. She made the point that guilt can, in a perverse way, be comforting. For if you suppose that the suffering in your life is a punishment for past misdeeds, then it follows that you can amend your life and thus avoid future punishments. But if you suppose that suffering is meted out by chance, then the whole system is out of your control. The theory of karma provides a reassurance of this moral order and makes the world a less frightening place.

Continuing Existence
Although there is much to indicate that we each exist only for a short lifespan, humans have long denied that this is so. Intellectually one can grasp the fact that we are bound to die; but the idea remains an abstraction, hard to relate to in a personal sense. It seems that some part of us does not really expect to die and does not really believe that we can simply cease to be.

Similarly, for some the experiences of deja vu can be very strong. People visiting regions far from home may have a sudden sense of "homecoming" or some other intense emotional response that has no obvious cause. Even when simply reading of ancient cultures, one may feel an abiding sympathy with some and an instant antipathy to others, as if we have been biased by previous experiences long lost to conscious memory.

Related to deja vu is the sense of predestination and hidden causalities in life. When we reflect on the little incidents that first bring us into contact with the person we wind up marrying, we may find it hard to believe that it all happened by chance. When we go on a trek to the Gobi desert and unexpectedly run into an old friend from high school, we are surprised by the coincidence, and understandably curious to know what hidden force has brought us back together.

All these feelings accord well with the doctrine of karma and reincarnation.

Symmetry
Symmetry in general also has a powerful aesthetic appeal, and when described in simplistic terms, the theory of karma sounds nicely symmetrical. Thus, karma is sometimes summarized by the statement that "every action has an equal and opposite reaction," just as in Newtonian physics.

Unfortunately, this perception of symmetry is based largely on an incomplete knowledge of karma theory. The fact that people have differing natures makes it unlikely that people will return to you exactly the deeds that you did to them. Thus you are faced with reprisals that come through other people or that take a form quite different from the original act (for example, your repayment might be a bodily disease).

Simplicity
A striking feature of the theory of karma is that it seems to become more complex and baroque the more closely you look at it, with areas that are obscure and mechanisms that in some cases seem redundant. Our discussion of Problems in the Theory of Karma yielded many examples of these complexities and obscurities, such as :

The fact that repayments for our actions occur both in future human births and in the various heavens and hells between births. There is no clear rationale for why both mechanisms should be necessary or how results are divided between them. Further, there are hints that the division was not always understood in the way it is now. Thus, the Upanisads state that we are not reborn on Earth until our karmas are exhausted in the heavens and hells; Sankaracarya is then hard put to it to explain how there can be leftover karma to determine our worldly existence.
The existence of the Law of Desire and the Law of Action, which appear to work in opposite ways. To resolve this difficulty, I had to make assumptions that are only loosely supported by scripture.
The question of whose karma causes a recompense to occur--my own, or that of the person whose action repays me.
The question of how karmic causes coexist and interact with physical causes.
The question of how the vast complexities of the system are coordinated. While my concept of the "karmic web" is, I think, an elegant solution, it also appears to be my own invention.
Ideally, a theory should be simpler than the phenomena it seeks to explain. It is not clear that the theory of karma really achieves this goal.

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The Divine Imperative
In reading statements made by Christian fundamentalists, I was greatly surprised to discover that some, at least, feel that their belief was thrust upon them against their will. The notion is that "God awakened me and made me to believe; I had no choice but to obey."

I have to confess to a little skepticism in this regard, since I find myself so well able to doubt almost anything that I think about too much. My suspicion is that people adopt this attitude to avoid having to examine beliefs that are basically indefensible. In other words, one's own fears could cause one to cling to one's beliefs, even without the direct intervention of God.

However, from a strictly logical point of view we cannot deny the possibility of an omnipotent God who chooses to make certain people believe certain things. Perhaps this God even forces some people to believe in the doctrine of karma. Even if this is so, however, we can hardly be sure that the beliefs he forces on people are correct beliefs.

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Scientific Study
And as far as the plausibility of rebirth is concerned, physical sciences and their theories are irrelevant. The methodology of physical sciences is made to measure for the investigation of physical energy. If there is more to a human being than physical energy as the philosophy of rebirth certainly believes there is, science cannot be the last word on what is or is not possible where human beings are concerned.
--Pratima Bowes, in Pappu, 186

Does the doctrine of karma assert that there is "more to a human being than physical energy"? At first glance, it would certainly appear so. After all, after death the physical body remains inert and eventually decomposes, while according to karma theory, the individual person has left the body and moved on to other realms.

However, what we are dealing with here is not simply a distinction between two realms of existence, material and spiritual, or between a body and a soul. The situation is more complex than that, for Hinduism recognizes several different layers or envelopes in the human constitution. There is the gross physical body, the subtle body, the causal body, and according to some teachers, the supracausal body as well. (Riviere 28-32; Muktananda (2), 86; Woodroffe (2), 54-58). Each of these bodies is more subtle than the preceding one. We experience the waking state in the gross body, the dream state in the subtle body, the dreamless sleep state in the causal body, and the turiya (enlightened) state in the supracausal body. The latter three (subtle, causal, and supracausal) all survive bodily death.

Now, the important point is that these various layers of the human constitution apparently all interact. Thus, physical disciplines such as yoga postures can be undertaken to purify channels and chakras that really are components of the subtle body; and meditation which is a subtle practice is nevertheless supposed to be good for physical health. So what you have is a more complex form of the traditional mind-body problem of Western philosophy: if the mind is not physical, how does it interact with the physical brain and body? Or if the subtle, causal, and supracausal bodies are not physical, how can they interact with the physical body?

Indeed, it is not really clear what it would mean to say that something exists and yet is not physical. One thinks of Bertrand Russell's "universals," but these don't seem to correspond well to the notion of an individual soul. Russell's universals are qualities that inhere in specific physical things, such as quantity, color, number, etc. but which can be treated of almost as if they had a quasi-independent, non-physical existence. Still, it seems awkward to say that a particular person's soul is an abstract quality like a number. Personalities seem to be more particular than that.

It is well to understand that the physical realm could contain many aspects that have not been discovered yet. Currently scientists are speculating that space may contain several higher dimensions that we cannot observe directly. The subtle, causal, and supracausal bodies might in fact reflect such dimensions. Thus, it would be premature to assume that these subtle aspects of the human constitution are not physical.

It is also worth pointing out that the scope of science is not limited to those things that we can observe directly. Many of the things that science studies (quarks, for example) are originally not seen directly, but instead are postulated to explain the behavior of other things. Some things, such as black holes, are postulated only because they follow as a consequence of the mathematics that describes other things.

Further, it should be noted that scientific instruments are now able to detect many things that are not apparent to our physical senses. X-ray film, optical telescopes and radio telescopes, microscopes, radar, and sonar are just some of the techniques by which science has transcended the limits of our own senses. You could look at them as examples of a type of extrasensory perception. Although these tools of perception are external to ourselves, the types of information they perceive could in principle be the same as psychics perceive with their psychic faculties.

There does not seem to be anything logically incoherent in supposing that, at some future date, we might develop an instrument that can detect the subtle body. Such an instrument might even be able to view the subtle body as it leaves the physical body at the time of death. Perhaps we could even attach the equivalent of a radio tracking collar to the soul, so that we could monitor the progress of the soul until its next rebirth. Similarly, a new type of X-ray device could perhaps photograph the samskaras in our bodies, and diagnose the fruits that each are destined to bear.

Thus, I cannot see any a priori reason for supposing that the theory of karma cannot be studied by science. However, the practical situation at the moment is quite different. We don't appear to have the tools at present to measure the existence of a soul, assuming that such a thing really exists.

It is still possible that science could postulate a soul to explain the order underlying various experimental results. In fact, a few neuroscientists (notably Sir John Eccles) believe that brain studies support the probability that there is more to the "self" than our physical brain. Such appears to be a minority viewpoint among neuroscientists, however.

Yet as long as the mind/body problem has not been definitively solved, and as long as the functions of the brain are not understood in exact detail, there is going to be room for the concept of a soul. It does not follow from this that the soul is a truly scientific hypothesis, however. In order to be a scientific hypothesis, an idea has to have explanatory power; it has to find order in existing observations, and make distinctive and testable predictions about the results of future observations. We seem to be very far from developing any such scientific concept of the soul, much less of karma.

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Conclusion
My study of karma and rebirth has yielded no certain results. However, in general the more closely I have looked into the topic, the less satisfied I have become with the whole theory. I have found that:

The scriptures that expound the doctrine also assert other doctrines that we know to be untrue.
The theory is described in traditional sources in a very incomplete manner, and the more you think about how the system could actually work, the more complex it becomes.
Nevertheless, I do not mean to imply that the doctrine has no value. Nor do I doubt that many who created this belief system or teach it today are beings of great spiritual advancement; saints, if you will. The remarkable thing is that the state of enlightenment does not appear to give any particular privileged status with regard to knowledge. But that is a larger subject to be explored in a different paper.


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Bibliography

© Copyright 1996-2001 by Joseph F. Morales
 
Re: Theory of Karma

deteras1 said:
Evaluating the Theory of Karma
"This is only a matter of belief. Can it be proved?" declared the barrister. "Yes, by the oral and written testimony of those who have acquired the eye to see what is happening in the astral planes above," the Great Master replied.

"Has any disciple here got that eye, so that he could tell us any of his experiences?" asked the barrister.

"There are a number of such people here," the Great Master said, "but they would not like to be brought into the limelight."

"There is no question of their gaining fame. It would just satisfy my curiosity about the subject," the barrister persisted.

"They would simply relate their experiences and tell what they have seen. How would that satisfy you that they are telling the truth?" asked the Great Master.

"I would be satisfied by their testimony," the barrister replied.

"Then why not believe my testimony," the Great Master asked, smiling.

At this everyone laughed.

"All right," the Great Master continued, "Daryai Lal will take you to a lady who has recently had such experiences."

...Bibi Rakhi then described her experiences, which I translated into English for the benefit of those who did not fully understand her language. After her narrative they were thoroughly convinced.

Great Master, 100-101

To the clairvoyant eye this astral body, which has the exact likeness of the physical body from which it has departed, is visible.

San Keshavadas, 27

How do we know whether or not the doctrine of karma and reincarnation is correct? Is it a matter of faith, of paranormal perception, or of reason? Opinions on this topic vary. In the book of essays Dimensions in Karma, Pratima Bowes concludes that "Rebirth then remains a matter of belief and its factuality cannot be proved" (p. 186). In the same volume, Karl H. Potter argues that in the Hindu classics, rebirth and karma "are understood in very much the sprit in which a scientific theory is understood" (p. 134).

Following are some factors that might bear upon our acceptance of this doctrine.

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Paranormal Knowledge
To begin with, it is important to recognize that knowledge through paranormal sources is a recognized part of the traditional theory of yoga. Thus, Patanjali says:

The knowledge which is gained from inference and the study of scriptures is knowledge of one kind. But the knowledge which is gained from samadhi is of a much higher order. It goes beyond inferences and scriptures.
Patanjali I:49

Patanjali gives a long list of the types of knowledge that a yogi can gain through meditation on particular objects.

The knowledge-status of such paranormal perceptions is slightly different from those experiences we call "divine revelations" in the West. Revelations seem to be given at unpredictable intervals to people whom God has chosen for His own inscrutable reasons. In yoga, by contrast, psychic powers are considered a normal side-effect of advanced states of meditation, and at least in principle, are attainable by anyone.

Whether they are attainable by everyone in practice is another question. People who attempt meditation and other spiritual disciplines experience varying degrees of progress and success. Patanjali attributes the speed of progress to the intensity of effort that the student puts forth. However, karma from past lives and the effects of divine grace are often also cited as factors affecting the student's progress. One thing that all teachers seem to agree on is that very few people reach enlightenment quickly.

As a result, we cannot expect to experience truly advanced states of meditation ourselves unless we are unusually fortunate or willing to dedicate years or decades of our lives to fairly intense disciplines. Even then, there is no guarantee of success in a single lifetime. So it would be difficult to make that commitment unless you were fairly confident that the result would, in the end, be worth the trouble.

The Perception of Karma
Having established that psychic perceptions are an accepted means of attaining knowledge in Hindu tradition, we may ask whether such perceptions are in fact the basis of the theory or doctrine of karma.

It is certainly true that various modern Hindu sages have had experiences which, for them, confirmed the doctrine of rebirth. Swami Muktananda, in his autobiography Play of Consciousness, describes visions in which he visited several of the heavens and hells that are described by Hindu scriptures. Similarly, Mother Meera has painted a number of pictures of the after-life journey of her late friend Mr. Reddy. In her book Answers, Meera says "I simply paint what I see."

The Role of Scripture
Yet it is also true that the Hindu tradition seems to regard its oldest scriptures with greatest reverence, with successively less authority being ascribed to more and more modern writings. It is curious, for example, on reading Sankaracarya's commentary on the Brahma-Sutras, to discover how he makes himself subservient to the Upanisads and Vedas. Since Sankaracarya is one of the most prominent thinkers in the history of Hindu religion, and many of his own writings are viewed by devotees as scriptures themselves, you might think he would have recourse to some of his own perceptions when he interprets older scriptures. But he makes at least a pretense of regarding the authority of those scriptures as absolute, and he justifies his views strictly by citing appropriate scriptural references.

What are we supposed to make of this? That Sankaracarya was less enlightened or less psychically powerful than the authors of the Upanisads? He may have conceived himself to be so. However, his writing is filled with such elaborate rhetorical devices that this subservience could also be a pretense, assumed for the role of convincing readers who have more faith in the scriptures than they do in him. Others who have studied the rest of Sankaracarya's writings could comment on this issue more effectively. But the point remains that the old scriptures seem to be regarded more highly than the revelations of living masters.

Second-Hand Knowledge
The upshot is that, for ordinary people, the belief in reincarnation is based on trust in others who are thought to have superior access to spiritual knowledge. Those others might be ancient authors of the scriptures or the modern sages whose experiences confirm the scriptures.

For most ordinary people, then, the question becomes one of: Why should I trust the assertions made by these gurus? What reason do I have to believe that their teachings are correct? Following are some of the criteria we can apply when evaluating the doctrines of those who speak from revelation or psychic perception:

Consistency and Explanatory Power
Correctness of related teachings
Intuitive "Rightness"
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Consistency and Explanatory Power
Internal Consistency
So far as I have been able to determine, the doctrine of karma is expounded by Hindu sources in a very incomplete manner. "Mysterious are the ways of karma" is one of the frequent refrains in writings upon this subject. The various "problems" I have addressed in this work arise precisely because of the incomplete manner in which the theory is described. Before I could reach any conclusions on the consistency of the theory, I had to infer a more complete version of the theory.

The good news is that fundamental contradictions seem to be lacking, though some Hindu teachers differ in their interpretation of the details. Even when you infer a more complete theory to fill in the gaps, no irreconcilable contradictions come to light.

Consistency with Other Teachers
What I mean by this heading is, "Consistency with other teachers who base their teachings on divine revelations or psychic experiences." If this means of knowledge is reliable, then seemingly it should produce consistent results among people around the world.

Joseph Head and S. L. Cranston, in their book Reincarnation: An East-West Anthology, cite examples of reincarnational belief from around the world. Still, there is no disguising the fact that not everyone believes in reincarnation and not all religions teach it. It is possible that the enlightened souls within each religious tradition have realized the truth of reincarnation. If this is so, then they apparently have not publicized this truth for some reason. Such a hidden unity of belief among religious masters is quite possible, but so far as I know, there is no objective evidence for it. For example, the biblical passages sometimes cited as referring to reincarnation can all be interpreted in other ways.

Another possibility is the One True Religion theory; the notion that one religion is correct, while all others are false. You could pick Hinduism as the correct religion and reject all the others; or you could say that Hinduism is more correct than other religions, which are partially correct to whatever extent they resemble Hinduism. However, it would be difficult to do this since Hinduism itself contains a number of problematical features.

Explanatory Power
What does the doctrine of karma and rebirth explain? Some of the candidates are:

Why bad things sometimes happen to good people, and why good things sometimes happen to bad people.
Why we are born with instinctive types of knowledge.
Why some people are born with extraordinary talents.
Why we experience "deja vu."
Why yogis have visions of heavens, hells, etc.
Why some people have memories of past births.
However, all of these items are explainable in other ways, viz.:

Why bad things sometimes happen to good people, and why good things sometimes happen to bad people.
Explanation: Because there is no personal God and there is no moral order to the universe. (There are other explanations for this dilemma, but the no-God explanation is obviously the simplest one. Other theories tend to require a good deal of theological tap-dancing.)

Why we are born with instinctive types of knowledge.
Explanation: The theory of evolution, proposed by Darwin and refined by later scientists, is taken by many to be an adequate explanation of this point.

Why some people are born with extraordinary talents.
Explanation: Largely the same as previous item. Additionally, studies have shown that "child prodigies" usually get a lot of encouragement and support from their parents. A combination of genetic endowment and appropriate environment could be at work.

Why we experience "deja vu" -- the sense of having visited a place before.
Explanation: An experience so vague in its nature might have many possible explanations, whether based on neurological phenomena, childhood memories that are "similar" but not identical, etc.

Why yogis have visions of heavens, hells, etc.
Explanation: In advanced meditation, one's mind is subjected to a type of sensory deprivation. That is, one withdraws to a quiet place and sits motionless, eyes usually closed. One then usually attempts to focus attention on one simple, repetitive thought or sensation.

In conditions of prolonged sensory deprivation, people typically begin to hallucinate. The content of such hallucinations could easily be influenced by cultural and religious indoctrination.

Why some people have spontaneous or recovered memories of past births.
Explanation: Wishful thinking, hallucination, and fraud could all play a role in such cases. With regard to the topic of "hypnotic regressions," it is worth noting that a hypnotist can instill false beliefs in susceptible subjects. It is equally possible that a hypnotist could induce the mind to generate a general type of fantasy that "feels" subjectively real.

On the other hand, the famous cases of reincarnation all involve proofs. These consist of the person displaying knowledge of past events that the person "could not possibly have known," but which are confirmed by later research. The difficulty in principle here is in establishing that someone "could not have known" something through normal means. The book Arthur C. Clarke's World of Strange Powers recounts a fascinating case of a young woman who turned out to have had access to historical information that she consciously forgot, but which her subconscious was able to draw upon when constructing a "past life" under hypnosis.

Therefore, there is nothing explained by the doctrine of karma and rebirth that cannot be explained by other means. Nevertheless, this doctrine might be preferable if it has advantages compared to those other explanations. For example, you might find some cases of past-life recollections to be so remarkable and compelling as to demand belief. In any case, let us postpone that question for the moment and return to it later.

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Correctness of Related Teachings
The problematical features of Hinduism could be said to fall into two categories: instances of dubious values, and instances of incorrect knowledge claims.

Note: This section could be offensive to Hindus or others strongly sympathetic to this religion. Please understand that it is not my aim to devalue the religion as a whole, but merely to show that reasonable doubt attaches to some particular doctrines advocated by Hindu scriptures. This doubt has bearing on the question of whether the theory of karma is itself a reliable one.

Dubious Values
In one sense, values might seem to be beyond criticism, because values are statements of preference rather than of fact. However, values can work at cross purposes to each other. If you value the happiness of humanity in general, then some specific elements of Hinduism are of concern as they seem to militate against human happiness. Following are some examples:

Caste System
Sacred Animals
Status of Widows
Knowledge Claims
Much of Hindu metaphysics deals with issues that are not easily proven or disproven. However, like the Judeo-Christian scriptures, the Hindu scriptures do contain some theories about the physical universe that we can compare with our current knowledge. The topics we can examine in this way include:

World Cycles
Geography
Astronomy and the Heavens
Liberal and Fundamentalist Views
Faced with apparent discrepancies in scripture, the devotee often retreats either to a liberal or a fundamentalist position, as described under:

Symbolic, Figurative, or Metaphorical Interpretations
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Caste System
The first sticking point for a Westerner studying Hinduism is generally the caste system. Thus, in one of the most famous of the Vedic hymns, we read:

When they divided the Purusa, into how many parts did they arrange him? What was his mouth? What his two arms? What are his thighs and feet called? The brahmin was his mouth, his two arms were made the rajanya (warrior), his two thighs the vaisya (trader and agriculturalist), from his feet the sudra (servile class) was born.
— Purusa Suktam, quoted in Radhakrishan and Moore, A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy

The Bhagavad Gita goes further to say:

Better is one's own dharma, though imperfectly performed, than the dharma of another well performed. Better is death in the doing of one's own dharma: the dharma of another is fraught with peril.
— Bhagavad Gita 3:35

The above is in the context of Krishna urging Arjuna to do battle because it is his duty as a kshatriya (member of the warrior caste). A remarkable point is that Krishna appears to acknowledge that one's innate talents can differ from one's caste, but that being true to one's caste is nevertheless more important. Surely such values would lead to a fantastic waste of talent.

The following quote perhaps gives us an idea of what Krishna meant by "fraught with peril." This passage from the Laws of Manu gives the karmic punishments of those who stray from the duties of each of the four castes: priest, ruler (or warrior), commoner, and servant.

But those classes who slip away from their own innate activities when they are not in extremity pass through evil transmigrations and then become the menial servants of aliens. A priest who has slipped from his own duty becomes a "comet-mouth" ghost who eats vomit; a ruler becomes a "false-stinking" ghost who eats impure things and corpses. A commoner who has slipped from his duty becomes a ghost "who sees by an eye in his anus", eating pus; a servant becomes a "moth-eater" ghost.
— The Laws of Manu, 12:70-72

The Laws of Manu also states that sudras must not read the Vedas. On the other hand, a correspondent of mine named Vishal Agarwal informs me that the Yajurveda, White or Vajasneyi Samhita, contains the following verse, which clearly mentions instructing sudras about the Word:

I do hereby address this salutary speech for the benefit of humanity—for the Brahmanas, the Kshatriyas, the Shudras, the Vaishyas, for them who are your own and the foreignor alike.
—Yajurveda XXVI.2

Vishal mentions as well the Hindu dictum that "A smriti opposed to shruti is invalid." In other words, in Hinduism the Vedas, which are the oldest scriptures, are also regarded as the highest ones, the ones most directly revealed by God. Other scriptures are considered valid only insofar as they are consistent with the Vedas.

Some modern Hindu teachers assert that the caste system, in its original form, was not hereditary. Thus, Paramahansa Yogananda says:

"Inclusion in one of the four castes originally depended not on a man's birth but on his natural capabilities as demonstrated the by goal in life he elected to achieve," an article in East-West for January, 1935 tells us. "This goal could be (1) kama, desire, activity of the life of the senses (Sudra stage), (2) artha, gain, fulfilling but controlling the desires (Vaisya stage), (3) dharma, self-discipline, the life of responsibility and right action (Kshatriya stage), (4) moksha, liberation, the life of spirituality and religious teaching (Brahmin stage). These four castes render service to humanity by (1) body, (2) mind, (3) will power, (4) Spirit.

"These four stages have their correspondence in the eternal gunas or qualities of nature, tamas, rajas, and sattwa: obstruction, activity, and expansion... Thus has nature marked every man with his caste, by the predominance in himself of one, or the mixture of two, of the gunas. Of course every human being has all three gunas in varying proportions. The guru will be able rightly to determine a man's caste or evolutionary status."...

Serious evils arose when the caste system became hardened through the centuries into a hereditary halter. India, self-governing since 1947, is making slow but sure progress in restoring the ancient values of caste, based solely on natural qualification and not on birth.
— Paramahansa Yogananda, Autobiography of a Yogi

Another kindly correspondent, named Michael Kagan, has drawn my attention to the statements of the modern Hindu philosopher Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan about the caste system, such as the following:

The fourfold order is the caste system. The emphasis is on guna (aptitude) and karma (function), and not jati (birth). The varna, or the order to which we belong, is independent of sex, birth, and breeding. — A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy

Radhakrishnan cites a number of scriptural references to support this viewpoint. Thus, he mentions the story of Satyakama Jabala. In the story, a young man of uncertain caste goes to ask a guru for instruction. The guru asks of what family the young man is.

"I do not know this, Sir, of what family I am. I asked my mother. She answered me: 'In my youth, when I went about a great deal serving as a maid, I got you. So I do not know this, of what family you are. However, I am Jabala by name; you are Satyakama by name.' So I am Satyakama Jabala, sir."

To him he then said: "A non-brahmin would not be able to explain thus. Bring the fuel, my dear. I will receive you as a pupil. You have not deviated from the truth."
— Chandogya Upanisad, IV.iv.1-5; from A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy

In another Upanisad, we find

Then, who, verily is the Brahmana? He who, after directly perceiving, like the amalaka fruit in the palm of one's hand, the Self, without a second, devoid of distinctions of birth, attribute, and action, devoid of all faults... who functions as the indwelling spirit of all beings... and through the fulfilment of his nature, becomes rid of the faults of desire, attachment, etc., and endowed with qualities of tranquility... He alone who is possessed of these qualities is the Brahmana. This is the view of the Vedic texts and tradition, ancient lore and history.
— Vajrasucika Upanisad, in The Principal Upanisads

In his notes to this Upanisad, Radhakrishnan also quotes similar sentiments from various portions of the Mahabharata:

Listen about caste, Yaksa dear, not study, not learning is the cause of rebornness. Conduct is the basis, there is no doubt about it.
— Mahabharata, Aranya-parva 312.106

O King of serpents, he in whom are manifest truthfulness, charity, forbearance, good conduct, non-injury, austerity and compassion is a Brahmana according to the sacred tradition.
— Mahabharata, Aranya-parva 180.20

O serpent he in whom this conduct is manifest is a Brahmana, he in whom this is absent treat all such as Sudra.
— Mahabharata, Aranya-parva 180.27

The gods consider him a Brahmana (a knower of Brahman) who has no desires, who undertakes no work, who does not salute or praise anybody, whose work has been exhausted by who himself is unchanged.
— Mahabharata, XII.269.34

Similarly, he quotes

I am a poet, my father is a doctor, my mother a grinder of corn.
— Rg-Veda, ix.112.3, in Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosphy, Volume 1

On the other hand, in the Laws of Manu we find statements that seem to explicitly link caste to heredity.

In all castes those (children) only which are begotten in the direct order on wedded wives, equal (in caste and married as) virgins, are to be considered as belonging to the same caste (as their fathers).

Men who commit adultery with the wives of others, the king shall cause to be marked by punishments which cause terror, and afterwards banish. For by (adultery) is caused a mixture of the castes among men; thence (follows) sin, which cuts up even the roots and causes the destruction of everything.
— The Laws of Manu, X.5 and VIII.352-3

How do we reconcile these conflicting impressions? Radhakrishan says:

The original Aryans all belonged to one class, every one being priest and soldier, trader and tiller of the soil. There was no privileged order of priests. The complexity of life led to a division of classes among the Aryans... As we shall see, when sacrifices assume an important role, when the increasing complexity of life rendered necessary division of life, certain families, distinguished for learning, wisdom, poetic and speculative gifts, became representatives in worship... When the Vedic religion developed into a regulated ceremonialism, these families formed themselves into a class... The rest were classed as the people or the Vaisyas. Originally occupational, the division soon became hereditary... Those who followed the learned professions, those who fought, those who traded all belonged to one whole, which was separated by a wider gulf from the conquered races... It is sometimes said that the aborigines converted and accepted by the Aryans are the Sudras, while those excluded by them are the Panchamas. It is maintained by others that the Aryans had in their own communities Sudras even before they came to the southern part of India. It is not easy to decide between these rival hypotheses.
— Indian Philosophy, Volume 1

And, again

Though originally framed on the basis of qualities, caste very soon became a matter of birth. It is hard to know who has which qualities. The only available test is birth. The confusion of birth and qualities has led to an undermining of the spiritual foundation of caste. There is no necessity why men of a particular birth should always possess the character expected of them. Since the facts of life do not answer to the logical ideal, the whole institution of caste is breaking down.
— Indian Philosophy, Volume 1

These attempts to posit a "kinder, gentler" caste system tend to leave me a bit confused. If a caste is not hereditary, then in what sense is it a caste? By the time of the Bhagavad-Gita, at least, there is evidently considerable tension related to the caste structure, since Krishna says "Better is one's own dharma, though imperfectly performed, than the dharma of another well performed." Compare this with Yogananda's "Inclusion in one of the four castes originally depended not on a man's birth but on his natural capabilities as demonstrated by the goal in life he elected to achieve." On the contrary, Krishna seems to say that you should not elect your own goals in life, but follow those that have been determined for you.

If the earlier forms of Hinduism are indeed the purest, then it would be especially interesting to determine whether the Vedas discuss the doctrine of karma and reincarnation. Unfortunately, this is a topic that apparently is interpreted differently by different scholars. I will add further information as it becomes available to me.

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Sacred Animals
The Hindu attitude of reverence toward cows is of course well known. In this connection we find:

He should never emit excrement or urine while facing the wind or looking at fire, a priest, the sun, water, or cows.
The Laws of Manu, 4:48

The punishment in hell for those who break this rule is picturesque:

Crows rip out the intestines through the anus of men who urinate in front of cows, brahmins, the sun or fire.
Vamana Purana, in Classical Hindu Mythology, p. 51

The Hindu regard for cobras is a little less well-known. In this regard, we find

The cobra is responsible for many deaths each year in India, where it is regarded with religious awe and seldom killed. (Funk & Wagnalls New Encyclopedia)

There is nothing logically inconsistent with supposing cows or cobras to be sacred. Hinduism is far from being the only religion to regard selected animals as specially sacred or specially unclean. However, when you compare various religions, you find that they do not agree about which animals are special. A Hindu incurs sin by eating beef, because cows are divine. Meanwhile, a Jew or Moslem can eat cows because they're really nothing special, but eating pork is bad because pigs are unclean. In Ancient Egypt, each county regarded a different animal as sacred, and one easy way to insult your neighbors was to eat their sacred animal. In other words, if there is any objective truth underlying most world religions, the rules about sacred and unclean animals are not part of that truth.

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Status of Widows
Like the caste system, the status of widows in Hinduism is an element that seems at first to be morally indefensible, but which becomes more complicated and difficult to define when you pursue it further. To begin with some of the worst examples, we find the following in The Laws of Manu:

A virtuous wife should never do anything displeasing to the husband who took her hand in marriage, when he is alive or dead, if she longs for her husband's world (after death) . . . She should be long-suffering until death, self-restrained, and chaste, striving (to fulfill) the unsurpassed duty of women who have one husband . . . But a woman who violates her (vow to her dead) husband because she is greedy for progeny is the object of reproach here on earth and loses the world beyond.
The Laws of Manu, 5:156,158,161

The policy with regard to widowers, however, is quite different:

When he has given the (sacrificial) fires in the final ritual to the wife who has died before him, he may marry again and kindle the fires again. He must never neglect the five (great) sacrifices, but should take a wife and live in his house, in accordance with this rule, for the second part of his life.
The Laws of Manu, 5:168-169

In discussing the punishments meted out in hell for various crimes, the Puranas yield the following insight:

Also those who remarry widows... must eat ants and worms.
Vamana Purana, in Classical Hindu Mythology, p. 51

So unfortunate was the fate of widows considered to be that we find the following cited as a benefit of chanting the Guru Gita:

It averts women's widowhood... If a widow repeats it without desire, she attains salvation. (If she repeats it) with desire, she will not become a widow in her next lifetime.
Guru Gita, v. 145-147

In addition, of course, one has heard the stories of women who were praised for their devotion because they flung themselves on their late husband's funeral pyre to burn up along with him. This practice is known as sati. A correspondent named Vishal Agarwal has provided me with the following quotes that advocate this practice or at least mention it without disapproval:

Mahabharata Adiparvan 95.65 describes the sati of Madari, the wife of Pandu (according to P. V. Kane).
Mahabharata Mausalaparvan 7.18 states that when Sri Krishna died, his wives namely Madura, Rohini, Bhadraa, and Devaki, committed sati (also according to P. V. Kane).
Vishnu Dharmasutra XXV.14 contains the statement:
On her husband's death, the widow should observe celibacy or should ascend the funeral pyre after him.

On the other hand, Vishal informs me that more liberal attitudes toward widowhood are expressed in some other scriptures, including the Vedas, which Hindus consider to be the most authoritative of their scriptures. I haven't yet had a chance to find copies of the quotations he cites. Until I do so, the following references might be of some use to serious students. According to Vishal,

Atharva Veda XVIII.3.1-4 condemns the practice of sati as follows:
Choosing her husband's realm, O man! (i.e. the dead man) this widowed woman lies next to your lifeless body, preserving faithfully the ancient law. Bestow upon her, both wealth and offspring.

O woman! (Since this man cannot bestow upon thee wealth, happiness and offspring) Come, rise unto the world of the living! Come, the man by whose side you lie is lifeless! Thy days of wifehood with this man, who wooed thee as a lover and took your hand (during the wedding ceremony) are over.

I (the sage) looked and saw the youthful maiden being escorted from the living to him who was dead. I saw them (her relatives and girlfriends) console her. I saw her being blinded by the darkness of sorrow and then, I turned her back and took her homeward.

O ye inviolable one! (the widow) Tread the path of the wise in front of thee and choose this man (another suitor) as they husband. Joyfully receive him and may the two of you mount the world of happiness.

Atharva Veda IX.5.27-29 includes a verse that translates as
Whatever woman, having first married one husband, marries another, she and the other new husband will not be separated if they offer a goat and five rice dishes illumined with religious fees.

Vishal comments: "The phrase panchaudana aga ( a goat and five rice dishes) could also mean 'the soul and the five senses' in which case the implication would be that the new husband and wife should be devoted to each other."

Rig Veda X.18.8-9 includes the following verses, the first of which duplicates one of the previously cited verses from the Atharva Veda:
Rise O Woman! Come to the world of the living. Come, the man by whose side you are lying is lifeless. Be united with this man as his wife, who holds thy hand and seeks to be thy husband.

(The new husband says) Taking the bow from the hand of the departed, let us launch a new life of valour and strength . . . Here are you my beloved, in front of me. Now we two, with virtuous and valourous children, will triumph over all who challenge us and compete with us.

Rig Veda X.40.2 includes the following verse:
O Ashwins! Where are you in the evening, where at the morning, where do you sojourn? Where do you dwell? And who is the one that brings you both into his presence, as a second husband to the couch of the widow, or the groom in front of his bride?
—Rig Veda X.40.2

Vishal notes: "In my opinion, this verse is merely a reference to widow remarriage and does not really sanction or enjoin it."

The remarriage of widows is advocated in the Vashista Dharmasutra of the Rigvedins.
In the epic Mahabharata, Sri Krishna prevents Uttara from committing sati after the death of her husband Abhimanyu. (Vishal is uncertain of the exact location of this story, but suggests the Stree or Mausala Parvans.)
The following verse is cited by P. V. Kane, in his History of Dharmashastra:
Another man is ordained for women in five calamities: a) When the husband is missing and is unheard of; b) The husband dies; c) When the husband is impotent; d) When the husband has become an ascetic; e) The husband has become depraved.
—Agnipurana 154.5-5; Parashara Smriti IV.30; and Narada Smriti V.97.

To summarize, it appears that various Hindu scriptures give conflicting viewpoints on the status and proper conduct of widows. Vishal says

What then to do with these conflicting opinions, especially since there are literally 100's of verses in the Hindu literature forbidding widow remarriage? I feel that the Vedas, which are of paramount authority for Hindus, do not forbid remarriage of widows anywhere but rather advocate. They therefore automatically abrogate all contrary injunctions of other religious literature. The Poorva Meemamsa rules for the interpretation of scripture clearly state that if two smritis clash, the two conflicting viewpoints indicate alternative practices, both being equally valid. Even according to this rule, widow remarriage is offered as an alternative to the lifelong celibacy of widows in the Smritis.

My thanks to Vishal and to anyone with further references to share on this subject.

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World Cycles
Refer to The Hindu Theory of World Cycles elsewhere in this study.

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Geography
The Puranic description of the geography of Earth is full of fabulous elements. For example,

Earth, composed of seven continents, together with the oceans extends 500,000,000 leagues across. Holy Jambudvipa lies in the middle of all the continents; in its center is said to be lofty Mt. Meru, bright as gold. Its height is 84,000 leagues, and it extends 16,000 leagues below the earth; its width at the top is 32,000 leagues, and its diameter at the base is 16,000 leagues.
Kurma Purana, in Classical Hindu Mythology, p. 52

In this quote, "league" is presumably a translation of a Sanskrit term at least loosely approximating the usual English meaning of "league" (about three miles). At this rate, Mt. Meru is something like 252,000 miles high. The tallest actual mountain on Earth is Mt. Everest, at about 29,000 ft, or less than six miles.

In the next quote we see that the impossibly high Mt. Meru is held to be the source of really existing rivers in India such as the Sita:

Ganga, the heavenly river flowing from the feet of Visnu and inundating the orb of the moon, falls all around the city of Brahma. Falling on the four regions, O twice-born ones, she subdivides into four rivers, namely Sita, Alakananda, Sucaksus and Bhadra. The river Sita flows from the atmosphere east of Mt. Meru and then through the eastern range called Bhadrasva to the sea. And each of the others does likewise: Alakananda to the South enters Bharatavarsa; Sucaksus to the West falls on Ketumala, and Bhadra to the North falls through Uttarakuru...
Kurma Purana, in Classical Hindu Mythology, p. 54

The scripture then describes nine different subcontinents, of which one (Bharatavarsa) includes or is the same as India. Eight of the subcontinents are populated by people who live paradisial lives. Their lifespans are 10,000 years apiece or more and their diet consists of sweet foods like bread-fruit and sugarcane. By contrast,

In Bharatavarsa women and men display diverse colors, worship various gods and perform many different duties. The full length of their lives is said to be a hundred years, O virtuous ones. They consume all kinds of food and live their lives according to virtue or vice... In these eight subcontinents, Kimpurusa and the others, O great sears, there is neither sorrow nor weariness, and no anxiety, hunger, or fear. And the people, healthy, unoppressed, free from all cares, ever youthful, all enjoy themselves in various ways. Only in Bharatavarsa, the wise say, and nowhere else, occur the four Ages: Krta, Treta, Dvapara and Kali.
Kurma Purana, in Classical Hindu Mythology, p. 54

Of these nine [lands], it is in Bharat-varsha only that there are sorrow, weariness, and hunger; the inhabitants of other varshas are exempt from all distress and pain, and there is in them no distinction of yugas. Bharata is the land of works, where men perform actions, winning either a place in Heaven, or release; or, it may be, rebirth in Hell, according to their merit. Bharata is, therefore, the best of Varshas; other varshas are for enjoyment alone. Happy are those who are reborn, even were they gods, as men in Bharat-varsha, for that is the way to the Supreme.
Coomaraswamy and Nivedita, 396

In this theory of geography, it is only on one subcontinent that people experience what we think of as normal human life, with its usual span of years and usual mixture of pleasure and pain. Most of the subcontinents are earthly paradises. Yet paradise is always somewhere else, on another continent far away (as proposed by Hindu geography) or in the far distant past (as proposed by the Hindu theory of world cycles).

Today the entire planet is explored, mapped, and surveyed by satellites, and no earthly paradises have come to light. You can still imagine that some hidden Shangri-La is tucked away somewhere, but it would have to be pretty small. The paradisial subcontinents proposed by Hindu geography would have been easy to imagine thousands or even hundreds of years ago, when every world map had blank stretches labeled "Terra Incognita." However, today we know that these places simply don't exist.

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Astronomy and the Heavens
The Hindu concepts of astronomy and of the celestial heavens are inextricably bound together, as we see in the following:

This earth, which is the object of the physical senses and of the knowledge based thereon, is but one of fourteen worlds or regions placed "above" and "below" it... The sphere of earth (Bhurloka), with its continents, their mountains and rivers, and with its oceans, is the seventh and lowest of the upper worlds. Beneath it are the Hells and Nether Worlds, the names of which are given below. Above the terrestrial sphere is Bhuvarloka, or the atmospheric sphere known as the antariksha, extending "from the earth to the sun," in which the Siddhas and other celestial beings (devayoni) of the upper air dwell. "From the sun to the pole star" (dhruva) is svarloka, or the heavenly sphere.
--John Woodroffe (1), 24

Note that Bhuvarloka and Svarloka are two of the heavenly realms in which we may experience the rewards of good deeds in between earthly lives. Here they are given a physical location as concentric spheres grouped around the earth like layers of an onion. The same type of image is picked up in the following text:

Bhurloka, Bhuvarloka, Svarloka, Maharloka, Janaloka, Taparloka and Satyaloka are the worlds thought to have their origin in the egg. In the old stories Bhurloka is said to stretch out as far as sun and moon radiate their beams of light, O bulls of the twice-born. As far as Bhurloka extends in width and circumference, so does Bhuvarloka spread out from the sphere of the sun, from which sphere the firmament extends upward as far as Dhruva* is located. This region is called Svarloka... The sphere of the sun lies 100,000 leagues from earth. The orb of the moon is also said to be 100,000 leagues from the sun. The whole circle of naksatras** appears the same distance from the moon. Twice this distance beyond the naksatras, O wise ones, is the planet Budha (Mercury), and Usanas (Venus) dwells the same distance from Budha. Angaraka (Mars) too is the same distance from Sukra (Venus). The priest of the gods (Brhaspati/Jupiter) resides 200,000 leagues from Bhauma (Mars), while Sauri (Saturn) is the same distance from the guru (Jupiter). This is the sphere of the planets. The sphere of the Seven Seers*** shines 100,000 leagues' distance from that. Dhruva* dwells the same number of leagues above the sphere of the seers. Dhruva is the central point of this entire wheel of luminaries in which resides the lord Dharma, Visnu Narayana.
--Kurma Purana, in Classical Hindu Mythology, pp. 46-47.

* The pole star
** The stellar constellations through which the moon appears to pass in the course of its orbit
*** The Little Dipper

There are a number of inaccuracies in this account, including:

The notion that the distance from the earth to the sun is the same as the distance from the sun to the moon. Actually, the distance between earth and sun is vastly greater than the distance from the sun to the moon.
The stars in the naksatras (lunar constellations) are said to be closer to us than are several of the planets; but actually, all stars are vastly more distant from us than all planets.
The listed distances between the planets are neither accurate nor even proportional to their actual distances.
The stars in the Little Dipper are said to be proportionally only slightly further from us than Saturn, whereas actually they are vastly more distant.
In addition to the inaccuracies, there is the strange omission of all mention of the outer planets (Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto). This omission is easy to understand if you suppose the Hindu astronomy was based on naked-eye observations; much more difficult if you suppose that such knowledge come from the infallible psychic insight of great rishis.

Note that both the descriptions above link Bhurloka and Bhuvarloka to the (inaccurate) conceptions of the physical solar system. This being the case, what confidence can we have in other scriptural statements about these lokas, or about the cycle of reincarnation that takes souls to and from these lokas?

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Symbolic, Figurative, or Metaphorical Interpretations
Faced with scriptural inaccuracies such as these, it is common for the theologian (of whatever religion) to either take a fundamentalist hard line or to suggest that certain doctrines were always intended figuratively rather than literally.

The fundamentalist hard line simply denies the truth of any scientific findings that contradict scripture. In the West, the whole controversy about teaching evolution in classrooms stems from this fundamentalist hard line, but there are fundamentalists in the East as well, as we see in the following anecdote:

When I was in India in the winter of 1954, in conversation with an Indian gentleman of just about my own age, he asked with a certain air of distance, after we had exchanged formalities, "What are you Western scholars now saying about the dating of the Vedas?"

The Vedas, you must know, are the counterparts for the Hindu of the Torah for the Jew. They are his scriptures of the most ancient date and therefore of the highest revelation.

"Well," I answered, "the dating of the Vedas has lately been reduced and is being assigned, I believe, to something like 1500 to 1000 B.C. As you probably know," I added, "there have been found in India itself the remains of an earlier civilization than the Vedic."

"Yes," said the Indian gentleman, not testily but firmly, with an air of untroubled assurance, "I know; but as an orthodox Hindu I cannot believe that there is anything in the universe earlier than the Vedas."

"Okay," said I. "Then why did you ask?"

--Joseph Campbell, p. 17

The liberal line, which interprets things figuratively, seems at first more attractive. It does not require you to believe anything known to be untrue, and it finds a residual value in those cherished teachings that are not literally true. However, there are two problems with this approach:

Although we may be able to take a teaching figuratively, how can we be sure that it was originally intended that way? Teachings that now seem too bizarre to be taken literally might have seemed quite normal and believable in the context of another culture in the distant past.
Once we start taking some doctrines figuratively, how do we know where to stop? For example, if Mt. Meru is a symbol for something other than a physical mountain, then how do we know that reincarnation is not merely a symbol for something else? Why accept one and not the other?
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Intuitive "Rightness"
Although we have been speaking in a fairly analytical way up to this point, it is well to bear in mind that, in daily life, most of our knowledge is not arrived at through analysis. It is thought by many that the intuitive faculties of the human mind can draw on much more information than we can assess analytically, and certainly there are a lot of remarkable anecdotes about the power of dreams and intuition in problem-solving. Thus, it seems worthwhile to take a look at the intuitive appeal of karma.

The Moral Order
In the first place, we have probably all had the experience of doing something we believed to be wrong, and experiencing a certain twinge. Remorse is certainly part of it, but there seems also to be a definite component of fear. On some level, we must expect to be punished, even if there is no rational reason to believe such a punishment will occur.

Hopefully we have also each had the experience of doing something unusually decent for another human being, and feeling warmed by the experience, almost as if we had earned the approval of a loving parent.

So the intuition of a moral order, somehow more definite and objective than mere social convention, is a common one in humanity. Yet in daily life we seem often to see examples of bad things happening to good people, and good things happening to bad people.

The theory of karma has a definite appeal in this area, as it proposes that we really will be rewarded or punished for our good and bad actions. In fact, in this area the theory of karma has an advantage even over Western religious ideas of an eternal Heaven and eternal Hell; because any reward or punishment of infinite duration is clearly not in proportion to one's original acts.

I once saw a show in which Bill Moyers interviewed the scholar Elaine Pagels. She made the point that guilt can, in a perverse way, be comforting. For if you suppose that the suffering in your life is a punishment for past misdeeds, then it follows that you can amend your life and thus avoid future punishments. But if you suppose that suffering is meted out by chance, then the whole system is out of your control. The theory of karma provides a reassurance of this moral order and makes the world a less frightening place.

Continuing Existence
Although there is much to indicate that we each exist only for a short lifespan, humans have long denied that this is so. Intellectually one can grasp the fact that we are bound to die; but the idea remains an abstraction, hard to relate to in a personal sense. It seems that some part of us does not really expect to die and does not really believe that we can simply cease to be.

Similarly, for some the experiences of deja vu can be very strong. People visiting regions far from home may have a sudden sense of "homecoming" or some other intense emotional response that has no obvious cause. Even when simply reading of ancient cultures, one may feel an abiding sympathy with some and an instant antipathy to others, as if we have been biased by previous experiences long lost to conscious memory.

Related to deja vu is the sense of predestination and hidden causalities in life. When we reflect on the little incidents that first bring us into contact with the person we wind up marrying, we may find it hard to believe that it all happened by chance. When we go on a trek to the Gobi desert and unexpectedly run into an old friend from high school, we are surprised by the coincidence, and understandably curious to know what hidden force has brought us back together.

All these feelings accord well with the doctrine of karma and reincarnation.

Symmetry
Symmetry in general also has a powerful aesthetic appeal, and when described in simplistic terms, the theory of karma sounds nicely symmetrical. Thus, karma is sometimes summarized by the statement that "every action has an equal and opposite reaction," just as in Newtonian physics.

Unfortunately, this perception of symmetry is based largely on an incomplete knowledge of karma theory. The fact that people have differing natures makes it unlikely that people will return to you exactly the deeds that you did to them. Thus you are faced with reprisals that come through other people or that take a form quite different from the original act (for example, your repayment might be a bodily disease).

Simplicity
A striking feature of the theory of karma is that it seems to become more complex and baroque the more closely you look at it, with areas that are obscure and mechanisms that in some cases seem redundant. Our discussion of Problems in the Theory of Karma yielded many examples of these complexities and obscurities, such as :

The fact that repayments for our actions occur both in future human births and in the various heavens and hells between births. There is no clear rationale for why both mechanisms should be necessary or how results are divided between them. Further, there are hints that the division was not always understood in the way it is now. Thus, the Upanisads state that we are not reborn on Earth until our karmas are exhausted in the heavens and hells; Sankaracarya is then hard put to it to explain how there can be leftover karma to determine our worldly existence.
The existence of the Law of Desire and the Law of Action, which appear to work in opposite ways. To resolve this difficulty, I had to make assumptions that are only loosely supported by scripture.
The question of whose karma causes a recompense to occur--my own, or that of the person whose action repays me.
The question of how karmic causes coexist and interact with physical causes.
The question of how the vast complexities of the system are coordinated. While my concept of the "karmic web" is, I think, an elegant solution, it also appears to be my own invention.
Ideally, a theory should be simpler than the phenomena it seeks to explain. It is not clear that the theory of karma really achieves this goal.

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The Divine Imperative
In reading statements made by Christian fundamentalists, I was greatly surprised to discover that some, at least, feel that their belief was thrust upon them against their will. The notion is that "God awakened me and made me to believe; I had no choice but to obey."

I have to confess to a little skepticism in this regard, since I find myself so well able to doubt almost anything that I think about too much. My suspicion is that people adopt this attitude to avoid having to examine beliefs that are basically indefensible. In other words, one's own fears could cause one to cling to one's beliefs, even without the direct intervention of God.

However, from a strictly logical point of view we cannot deny the possibility of an omnipotent God who chooses to make certain people believe certain things. Perhaps this God even forces some people to believe in the doctrine of karma. Even if this is so, however, we can hardly be sure that the beliefs he forces on people are correct beliefs.

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Scientific Study
And as far as the plausibility of rebirth is concerned, physical sciences and their theories are irrelevant. The methodology of physical sciences is made to measure for the investigation of physical energy. If there is more to a human being than physical energy as the philosophy of rebirth certainly believes there is, science cannot be the last word on what is or is not possible where human beings are concerned.
--Pratima Bowes, in Pappu, 186

Does the doctrine of karma assert that there is "more to a human being than physical energy"? At first glance, it would certainly appear so. After all, after death the physical body remains inert and eventually decomposes, while according to karma theory, the individual person has left the body and moved on to other realms.

However, what we are dealing with here is not simply a distinction between two realms of existence, material and spiritual, or between a body and a soul. The situation is more complex than that, for Hinduism recognizes several different layers or envelopes in the human constitution. There is the gross physical body, the subtle body, the causal body, and according to some teachers, the supracausal body as well. (Riviere 28-32; Muktananda (2), 86; Woodroffe (2), 54-58). Each of these bodies is more subtle than the preceding one. We experience the waking state in the gross body, the dream state in the subtle body, the dreamless sleep state in the causal body, and the turiya (enlightened) state in the supracausal body. The latter three (subtle, causal, and supracausal) all survive bodily death.

Now, the important point is that these various layers of the human constitution apparently all interact. Thus, physical disciplines such as yoga postures can be undertaken to purify channels and chakras that really are components of the subtle body; and meditation which is a subtle practice is nevertheless supposed to be good for physical health. So what you have is a more complex form of the traditional mind-body problem of Western philosophy: if the mind is not physical, how does it interact with the physical brain and body? Or if the subtle, causal, and supracausal bodies are not physical, how can they interact with the physical body?

Indeed, it is not really clear what it would mean to say that something exists and yet is not physical. One thinks of Bertrand Russell's "universals," but these don't seem to correspond well to the notion of an individual soul. Russell's universals are qualities that inhere in specific physical things, such as quantity, color, number, etc. but which can be treated of almost as if they had a quasi-independent, non-physical existence. Still, it seems awkward to say that a particular person's soul is an abstract quality like a number. Personalities seem to be more particular than that.

It is well to understand that the physical realm could contain many aspects that have not been discovered yet. Currently scientists are speculating that space may contain several higher dimensions that we cannot observe directly. The subtle, causal, and supracausal bodies might in fact reflect such dimensions. Thus, it would be premature to assume that these subtle aspects of the human constitution are not physical.

It is also worth pointing out that the scope of science is not limited to those things that we can observe directly. Many of the things that science studies (quarks, for example) are originally not seen directly, but instead are postulated to explain the behavior of other things. Some things, such as black holes, are postulated only because they follow as a consequence of the mathematics that describes other things.

Further, it should be noted that scientific instruments are now able to detect many things that are not apparent to our physical senses. X-ray film, optical telescopes and radio telescopes, microscopes, radar, and sonar are just some of the techniques by which science has transcended the limits of our own senses. You could look at them as examples of a type of extrasensory perception. Although these tools of perception are external to ourselves, the types of information they perceive could in principle be the same as psychics perceive with their psychic faculties.

There does not seem to be anything logically incoherent in supposing that, at some future date, we might develop an instrument that can detect the subtle body. Such an instrument might even be able to view the subtle body as it leaves the physical body at the time of death. Perhaps we could even attach the equivalent of a radio tracking collar to the soul, so that we could monitor the progress of the soul until its next rebirth. Similarly, a new type of X-ray device could perhaps photograph the samskaras in our bodies, and diagnose the fruits that each are destined to bear.

Thus, I cannot see any a priori reason for supposing that the theory of karma cannot be studied by science. However, the practical situation at the moment is quite different. We don't appear to have the tools at present to measure the existence of a soul, assuming that such a thing really exists.

It is still possible that science could postulate a soul to explain the order underlying various experimental results. In fact, a few neuroscientists (notably Sir John Eccles) believe that brain studies support the probability that there is more to the "self" than our physical brain. Such appears to be a minority viewpoint among neuroscientists, however.

Yet as long as the mind/body problem has not been definitively solved, and as long as the functions of the brain are not understood in exact detail, there is going to be room for the concept of a soul. It does not follow from this that the soul is a truly scientific hypothesis, however. In order to be a scientific hypothesis, an idea has to have explanatory power; it has to find order in existing observations, and make distinctive and testable predictions about the results of future observations. We seem to be very far from developing any such scientific concept of the soul, much less of karma.

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Conclusion
My study of karma and rebirth has yielded no certain results. However, in general the more closely I have looked into the topic, the less satisfied I have become with the whole theory. I have found that:

The scriptures that expound the doctrine also assert other doctrines that we know to be untrue.
The theory is described in traditional sources in a very incomplete manner, and the more you think about how the system could actually work, the more complex it becomes.
Nevertheless, I do not mean to imply that the doctrine has no value. Nor do I doubt that many who created this belief system or teach it today are beings of great spiritual advancement; saints, if you will. The remarkable thing is that the state of enlightenment does not appear to give any particular privileged status with regard to knowledge. But that is a larger subject to be explored in a different paper.


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© Copyright 1996-2001 by Joseph F. Morales
 
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