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I want to tone, but I don't want to get too big

Tatyana

Elite Mentor
“I Want to Tone, But I Don’t Want to Get Too Big”

(or “Why Weight Training is Important for Women”)

by Sasha Meshkov, MS, CSCS

If you are reading this, you are probably already reaping the benefits of resistance training. If you have not yet begun to incorporate weight training into your exercise program, you may find some of your concerns addressed below.

Common Reservations Many Women Have Regarding Lifting Weights:

Fear: “I don’t want to get too big and look like a guy - or those women in the muscle magazines!”

Reality:

Apart from highly dedicated training and dieting, it takes a substantial amount of pharmaceutical enhancement and cosmetic surgery to achieve that look. Several sessions per week of resistance training alone (even with immaculate nutritional habits) won’t generate extreme muscularity gains for most women.

Fear: “Once I stop exercising, won’t all that muscle turn to fat?”

Reality:

Muscle and fat are chemically different substances. A table won’t turn into a chair without some major structural reorganization. Muscle cannot alter its composition and turn into fat. Muscle can, however, atrophy from lack of use. Excess calories can be stored as fat.

The body can’t “store” fitness; it is designed to move! We don’t say, “Okay, I have breathed enough for a while. I am bored with breathing” and expect our bodies to continue to function for a significant period of time after our last breath! Its no different with resistance training. Exercise, including resistance training (which does not have to consist solely of gym workouts), is an integral part of a healthy lifestyle.
Why would you stop exercising? Ideally, it is fun! If not, find a way to make it enjoyable! Worst case: learn to love it!

Fear: “I don’t want to build; I just want to tone.”

Reality:

A toned muscle is a muscle with significant endurance and strength.
Women have estrogen in much greater abundance than testosterone. Estrogen has an atrophying effect on muscle, whereas testosterone has a hypertrophying effect. For a woman to gain substantial size in most cases, they will have to spend money on more than just a gym membership and a personal trainer...

There is, excluding liposuction, no such thing as “spot reducing.” Just because you have emotional distress over a particular area of your body does not mean that your body will magically recruit fat from that region to fuel whatever exercise you have selected. For example, if you have large fat deposits on your thighs, doing hundreds of side-lying leg lifts won’t necessarily “trim n’tone” your thighs.


Why is Weight Training Essential for Women?

Physiological Benefits of Weight Training:


Increased lean mass
Increased bone density (and resulting decreased risk of osteoporosis)
Increased connective tissue strength
Increased muscular strength
Increased muscular endurance
Increased metabolism
Increased muscle capillarization
Increased physical capacity
Improved muscle balance
Improved posture
Decreased body fat
Decreased risk of injury

Psychological Benefits of Weight Training:

Enhanced kinesthetic awareness
Improved body image
Improved physical appearance
Improved quality of life
Increased confidence
Decreased isolation (much-needed in these “Dilbert “ days of cubicles and computers)
Decreased symptoms of clinical depression
Its fun!

Ideas to Consider:

Since women lose bone mass at a greater rate than men, weight training is especially crucial. Typically, after age 35, women lose 1.2% per year, whereas men lose 0.2% per year. For optimal bone remodeling to occur, significant resistance must be used. Ideally, this means progressing beyond the light weights used in group fitness classes.

Additionally, the increase in lean mass associated with weight training strongly correlates with a faster metabolism. This means that women will burn more calories twenty-four hours a day, not just during or immediately following the exercise sessions. If you consider that a pound of fat contains roughly 3,500 kcals, exercise alone is not the most efficient mechanism to reduce that fat. However, generating significant metabolically active tissue (muscle) will cause an increase in the basal metabolic rate, thus burning off those excess calories more efficiently!

The bigger question is why DON’T more women weight train? Most women are stronger than they might suspect. After all, many women carry babies, kids, groceries, luggage, briefcases, bikes, push lawnmowers, vacuum cleaners, dig up gardens, etc. They are engaging in some resistance training already! All that’s left is learning optimal biomechanics, how to use the equipment and how to train to obtain the results they are after! Plus weight training improves grip strength, so we can open that very important jar of peanut butter by ourselves!



Sasha Meshkov, MS, CSCS is Triple Gold Certified through the American Council on Exercise, and is an NSCA-Certified Personal Trainer. She has a Master’s Degree in Geophysics. Sasha is a Continuing Education Provider for ACE and the NSCA.


She is a longstanding member of the ACE Faculty, and is the Program Director of one of the original programs accredited by ACE to prepare students for the ACE Certification Exams almost a dozen years ago.

Sasha was a member of the ACE Aerobics Instructor Certification Exam Committee, and was a Reviewer for the ACE Aerobics Instructor Manual. She also served as a Reviewer for the National Health Club Association’s Strength, Weight & Cardiovascular Training Certification Manuals.

Sasha owned two fitness studios for nearly a decade, and served as the USA Team Coach for the World Aerobics Championships and as US Head Judge for the National Aerobics Championships. She is an NPC Bodybuilding & Fitness Judge & Emcee.

Sasha started powerlifting in 1995. She competed in the 1997 IPF Worldmaster Powerlifting Championships (9th), the 1997 USPF Senior Nationals (Bronze Medalist in the 60kg) and was the 1996 ADFPA Colorado State Overall Women’s Champion. After an extended post-World’s dessert festival, she recently competed in a whole new weight class at the 1998 USAPL Women’s Nationals (2nd). Back down to her normal weight, she discovered that the monoab is not for her.
 
Women have estrogen in much greater abundance than testosterone. Estrogen has an atrophying effect on muscle, whereas testosterone has a hypertrophying effect

I am not certain about the scientific validity of this statement.

I am sure I have read papers about the anabolic effects of oestrogen, this statement is a gross over-simplification.

It is well documented that oestrogen has an anabolic effect on bone and muscle tissue.

I know I have a paper somewhere.
 
Tatyana said:
Not me silly, I am working on getting as much muscle as naturally possible :artist:

I was refering to the fact that every girl I know that does not work out says they don't because they don't want to be big. :rolleyes:
 
Strength Training for Women


A comprehensive look at why and how women should train for strength

By Patty S. Freedson , PhD



Only a decade ago exercise prescription typically consisted of cardiovascular conditioning and flexibility training. Little or no emphasis was placed on strength training, particularly for women. Today the emphasis has changed, and strength training is popular among both males and females. In almost every fitness facility, men and women of all ages are using weight machines and free weights with the help of their personal trainers. Even group exercise classes incorporate some form of resistance exercise into workout routines.

What is behind this shift? How has our approach to teaching and promoting fitness changed? First, we have recognized the importance of muscular strength as a piece of the fitness puzzle. It is no longer sufficient to simply exercise the heart and stretch our muscles. We must promote strength in those muscles as well. The effects of strength training include a highly toned body, enhanced strength and power, and improved sports performance. Second, there are significant health benefits associated with strength training. Stronger bones, reduced risk of osteoporosis, improved functional fitness and less susceptibility to injury are just a few.

Personal trainers can benefit from understanding the conditioning needs of their female clients of all ages. So let's begin the journey in examining strength training for women:

The first stop will examine gender differences in strength.
Second will be an analysis of research regarding the physiological effects of strength training, from both performance and health perspectives.
The third destination will present basic principles of weight training.
Fourth will be suggested program guidelines for strength training.
Finally, some of the common myths and misconceptions about women's strength training will be reviewed.

Gender Differences
Absolute strength, or the maximum amount of weight that can be lifted, is considerably higher for men than for women. In the upper body, the average woman is about 50 to 60 percent as strong as her male counterpart. In contrast, the gender difference in absolute strength in the lower body is smaller, with women exhibiting only about a 25 to 30 percent decrease in strength compared to men (Freedson 1994).

These regional differences between men and women in absolute strength raise an interesting question: Are there differences between women and men in muscle physiology between the upper and lower body? The answer is unequivocally no. The likely explanation is that women typically have participated in fewer upper-body resistance activities than men. The daily overload to a woman's upper body is much less. The lower body, specifically the legs, is naturally overloaded on a regular basis for locomotion purposes (otherwise known as walking). As women continue to add upper- and lower-body strength training to their regular fitness routines, this gender gap will likely be reduced.

When gender differences are examined relative to total muscle mass (pound for pound), women are similar to men in leg press strength (lower body) but about 20 to 40 percent weaker in arm curl strength and bench press strength (upper body). Thus, it appears that when training levels are similar for men and women, gender differences in absolute amount of muscle mass account for strength differences.

It is well known that strength and muscle mass decline with age. In one of the most comprehensive studies on age, gender effects and muscle strength, Lindle et al. (1997) studied 654 women and men (ages 20 to 93 years) as part of the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging. The authors reported that strength begins to decline at age 40, and it decreases 8 to 10 percent per decade thereafter for both women and men.

The consequences of aging have been associated with negative health effects, including increased risks for falls, hip fractures and glucose intolerance as well as declines in bone mineral density (BMD). These negative outcomes have major economic and quality of life implications-all of which might be significantly reduced through strength training. The positive changes associated with systematic resistance exercise in older individuals are discussed later in this article.

Increasing muscle strength occurs by increasing muscle size and through improvements in how the nervous system communicates information to the muscles. It has been well established that muscles gain more mass as a result of changes in the size of the muscle fibers (hypertrophy), rather than through an increase in the number of muscle fibers (hyperplasia).

For the average female, increases in muscle size are relatively small. Consequently, the primary mechanism for strength improvements appears related to increased muscle fiber recruitment and improved coordination patterns of fiber recruitment. Research has shown that strength training causes relatively similar improvements in strength for women and men.

In a classic strength training study, Wilmore (1974) tested 73 college students (47 women and 26 men), who exercised two days a week for 10 weeks. Strength gains of 10.6 to 29.5 percent were reported for the women; for the men, 5 to 26 percent. Total muscle mass (amount of muscle hypertrophy) in the women increased 2.4 percent (measured by underwater weighing), which led the author to suggest that large gains in muscle size were not responsible for these young women's strength gains.

Many other health benefits have been documented for women who strength train:

In a study conducted at the University of Arizona (Lohman et al. 1995), researchers reported a 2 to 3 percent increase in lumbar spine (back) and femoral neck (hip) BMD after an 18-month strength training program among 22 women, ages 28 to 39 years.
The benefits of strength training extend to older women. In a study by Morganti et al., 20 women, all 60 years old, exercised twice a week for one year at 84 percent of one repetition maximum (RM). Performing an intense training regime, the women increased their strength in upper-body, lat pull-down by 77 percent, knee extension by 73.7 percent and double leg press by 35.1 percent. Although 40 to 50 percent of the strength gains were observed during the study's first three months, improvements in strength were observed over the program's entire 52 weeks.
Like their younger counterparts, older women also reaped the positive effects of strength training on BMD. In a study by Tufts University's Human Nutrition Research Center on Aging (Nelson et al. 1994), 20 women, ages 50 to 70 years, trained at high intensity two days a week for one year. The authors reported a one percent increase in femoral neck and lumbar spine BMD in the women, compared to the control group participants (no strength training), whose BMD decreased by 2 percent.
Resting blood pressure (RBP) levels also are impacted by strength training. Researchers at the University of Maryland (Martel et al. 1999) recently published a report on the effects of a six-month, three-day per week workout program on the RBP of 21 women and men (average age = 68 years). Strength increases alone were remarkable, averaging 20 percent for the upper body and 28 percent for the lower body. However, significant decreases in RBP also were reported. In fact, many participants shifted from a high-normal RBP category to a normal RBP level.
In another study by from the University of Maryland (Tracy et al. 1999), a 12 percent increase in leg muscle volume (measured using magnetic resonance imaging) was reported in 11 women, ages 65 to 73 years. Leg muscle quality, defined as the ratio of muscle strength to muscle volume, also increased by 16 percent. In other words, not only did the women's legs get stronger but the strength per unit volume of muscle (quality of muscle) improved dramatically as well.
Intra-abdominal obesity has been associated with a number of negative health outcomes, including cardiovascular disease and increased insulin resistance (greater risk of type II dia-betes). In a study of 14 women, all 67 years old, Treuth et al. (1995) reported strength increases of 51 percent for the upper body and 65 percent for the lower body following 16 weeks of strength training. Moreover, a 10 percent reduction in intra-abdominal fat (measured using computerized axial tomography) was observed.
Functional fitness, or the ability to carry out daily living activities, also improves in older women who strength train. In a study by Hunter et al. (1995), 14 women, ages 60 to 77 years, participated in a 16-week strength conditioning program and improved their strength by 52 percent. In addition, the women's self-selected walking speeds increased 18 percent; their arm muscle activity needed to carry a box of groceries decreased 36 percent; and their leg muscle activity while standing decreased 40 percent. Thus, following the resistence training program, the women were able to carry out daily living activities with less stress on their stronger muscles.
Even very old women benefit from strength training. In a study by Fiatarone et al. (1990), 10 women, ages 86 to 96 years and all residents of a nursing home, participated in an eight-week strength training program. These women increased their strength by 175 percent!
In summary, strength training in women has numerous performance and health-related benefits. One indirect advantage, particularly for older women, is the growing ease in which everyday activities can be performed. Some women simply avoid activities that involve carrying heavy objects and walking up stairs. Disengaging these activities, however, means inactive muscles became weaker and weaker, causing a further decline in functional fitness. Strength training can effectively break this cycle.

When women say they cannot do as much as they could in their youth, it's not necessarily because of age; rather, it's a function of doing fewer activities to overload their muscles.

Strength training used to be an activity mostly performed by men. Even after the fitness boom began in the 1980s, resistance training facilities mostly were frequented by men. One of the primary reasons for lack of participation among women was the proliferation of various myths and misconceptions about the effects of strength training on women. Following is a list of these beliefs and physiological rationales on why they're incorrect.

Strength Training Will Make My Muscles Large and Bulky. Strength training will result in a small increase in total muscle mass. However, large increases in muscle size will not result because female testosterone levels are low; this hormone appears necessary to elicit increases in protein synthesis (large muscle increases). Due to genetics and individual differences, some women will increase muscle mass more than others-but nowhere near muscle size increases observed in men.

I Cannot Increase Muscle Strength Through Weight Training as Much as a Man. Study after study have confirmed that strength training will result in strength gains at least as large as those observed in men. In some cases, relative strength gains in women were greater than those in men, because women's initial strength levels were lower, making the potential for improvements greater. (Some of the studies cited in the main article address this issue.)

My Strength Training Program Should Be Less Intense Than What's Recommended for a Man. There is absolutely no reason that the basic principles governing men's strength training programs cannot be used in designing women's programs. To wit: low repetitions and high resistance for increasing absolute strength and power; high repetitions and low resistance for muscle toning and muscle endurance.

Women Should Only Use Weight Machines and Perform Exercises at a Low Velocity. There's an incorrect notion that if women use free weights or perform exercises that involve explosive moves, their risk for injury is greater. There is absolutely no evidence of gender differences in injuries consequent to strength training. If women (and men) are taught proper mechanics for lifting, the risk of injury risk is reduced.

Older Women Should Not Participate in Strength Training Exercises. Older women must participate in activities designed to specifically strengthen all muscle groups if they want to maintain maximum health and lifestyle performance. Health benefits received from this type of exercise are numerous: reduced risk for osteoporosis, decreased risk of falls, sustained independence later in life and decreased risk of insulin resistance.

I Have to Join a Gym to Perform Strength Training Exercises. Inexpensive strength training devices are readily available and will likely cost less than a treadmill or bicycle ergometer. These include dumbbells, ankle weights, elastic bands, barbells and weight benches.

Basic Principles
Why do women strength train? There are several possible reasons for including this type of conditioning in one's overall fitness program. The most prevalent reasons are:

to improve appearance
to increase muscle strength and muscle power
to improve health
Various principles in women's strength training complement these reasons. Let's examine how women strength train based on the following four principles:

Overload Principle
Specificity Principle
We Are All Different Principle
Use It or Lose It Principle
To achieve maximum success with strength training, it is important to follow the overload principle, which refers to the volume of training. Overloading the muscles with more stress than usual will elicit the optimal adaptation response. Variations in overload are accomplished by manipulating the load being lifted, number of repetitions, sets of repetitions, rest intervals between sets and frequency of workouts per week.

For novices, two to three sets of 10 to12 repetitions are recommended. Following an initial habituation period (about two weeks), exercisers can advance to three sets of 10 to 12 reps and increase weight by two to five pounds. Most weight training workouts are performed two to three times per week on alternate days (for example, Monday and Wednesday, or Monday, Wednesday and Friday).
For advanced lifters, anywhere from 3 to 15 repetitions are recommended, depending on the aims of the weight training program. In addition, more frequent weight training workouts can be conducted, with alternate muscle groups being exercised on different days (for instance, strength training for the lower body on Monday and Wednesday; upper-body exercises on Tuesday and Thursday).
To increase strength, fewer repetitions (3 to 6) at higher resistances are recommended. Rest intervals between sets should be long enough so that maximal loads can be lifted; rest intervals between sets for the high repetition, low resistance workout can be shorter. To optimize gains in muscle endurance (capacity to sustain muscular movement) and for muscle toning, lower weights with more reps are recommended. The most important element of a good strength training program is sustaining it. Strength routines can become a regular part of almost any client's long-term exercise program.

Specificity Principle
The nature of the adaptation response consequent to strength training is determined by the specific type of exercise performed. For example, if one wants to improve cardiovascular fitness to enhance running performance, then endurance running workouts are the best way to achieve this goal. The same specificity principle holds for strength training.

If the primary goal is getting in shape for activities that primarily use the lower body, then the strength training program focus should involve mainly lower-body exercises. If, on the other hand, the general goal is for total body fitness and improved appearance, then the program should be structured with exercises for the upper and lower body.

We Are All Different Principle
If your aim is to attain Olympic-level performance standards, then being able to choose your own biological parents would have helped this quest. In other words, your genes are an important determinant of the training response.

Everyone can improve strength fitness by following a program conducted on a regular basis. However, the magnitude and nature of the response can be quite different among individuals- thus, the we are all different principle. Some women, for example, may increase their muscle mass more than others or improve strength more or attain it faster than others. Still, do not let clients become discouraged by this reality. Every woman has the potential to improve muscular strength with proper training and conditioning.

Use It or Lose It Principle
The overload principle dictates that for a training adaptation to occur, it is necessary to stress the system more than it is accustomed. If less stress is presented, the muscle will "detrain" and become weaker. The use it or lose it principle mandates that maintenance of strength fitness can only occur if one continues to train on a regular basis.

Still, some questions remain unanswered in the current research literature: How much strength training is necessary to sustain strength gains? Can an individual reduce strength training volume and still maintain strength? Until we have answers to these important questions, emphasis must be placed on maintaining a regular strength training program forever.

Program Guidelines
What exercise programs work best for women who strength train? Among the factors for trainers to consider are:

type of exercise equipment, and
program design.
Most clients will have questions related to these two areas.

" Should I use weight machines or free weights?" There is no right or wrong answer to this question, which is fairly common among exercisers training for strength. A savvy trainer might answer that question with a better one: "What type of equipment will help you to maintain your exercise program for a lifetime?"

If one is willing to learn how to use free weights in a safe manner, then free weights may be right. If it is easier to let machines dictate what muscle groups will be involved in an exercise, then a client must be willing to visit a gym regularly or invest $1,000 to $3,500 for a home-based system. Of course, a combination of the two is a possible alternative. (See "Weight Machines Versus Free Weights.")

Program Design
As most trainers know, every exercise routine should begin with a warm-up period that is both general and specific. General warm-up will include activities involving whole body exercises, such as calisthenics, stretching, stationary cycling and jogging in place. Specific warm-up will include exercises to be performed in the main program design, only using minimal amounts of weight. At the conclusion of every workout, participants should cool-down with some light stretching that focuses on all the muscle groups' range of motion.

For novice exercisers, select weights that can easily be lifted 10 times. Note: To avoid injury, it is better to start with weights that are too light rather than too heavy. One set of each exercise should be performed for the first few workouts.

Select exercises that work every major muscle group. A novice strength training program should include: bench press, lat pull-down, lateral raise, triceps extension, biceps curl, leg press, calf raise and abdominal curl. Additional upper-body exercises might include: upright row, bent row, reverse curl and bent arm pullover. Other lower-body exercises might include: leg flexion, leg extension and half or full squat. Additions or substitutions of lower-and upper-body exercises can be implemented after a few weeks of regular training. Following a familiarization period (3 to 6 workouts; 1 set of 10 reps for each exercise), build up to three sets of 10 reps for each exercise.

One program option is the DeLorme Method (1945), which provides a systematic strength training protocol. The method involves three sets of any given exercise:

Set 1 is performed at 50 percent of 10 RM.
Set 2 is done at 75 percent of 10 RM.
Set 3 is conducted at 100 percent of 10 RM.
The DeLorme Method requires clients, with the help of trainers, to determine the maximum amount of weight that can be lifted 10 times (cannot do an eleventh rep). While this system may seem cumbersome, it is good practice after the familiarization period. It allows clients to see their starting point and enables a month-to-month assessment of improvement (and, if necessary, to set new weights for the exercises). More advanced techniques can be implemented as clients progress.

Another option is to use TheRecommended Quantity and Quality of Exercise for Developing and Maintaining Cardiorespiratory and Muscular Fitness,and Flexibility in Healthy Adults ( ACSM, 1998). Some of the strength training recommendations are as follows:

for improving muscular strength and muscular endurance, eight to 12 reps per set
to maximize gains in strength and power, six to eight reps per set
for major muscle groups, eight to 10 reps per set
for program sessions, two to three days per week
for younger individuals, minimum of one set of eight to 12 reps (to fatigue)
for older individuals (50 years-plus), 10 to 15 reps per set
for athletes focusing on strength and power, one to three sets of six to 12 reps (to fatigue)
As many trainers know, the effects of strength training can be felt by clients after just a few workouts. Initially, these effects are built-in motivators. Over time, however, strength training can become boring, so it's important to offer clients variety. Change the routine order. Vary the sets, reps and loads. Have clients keep records so they can assess their improvements objectively. Adding strength training exercises to your female clients' fitness regimes will impact how they feel about themselves. Moreover, it enhances their health and well-being while improving the overall quality of their lives.

Strength Training Benefits for women

Improved strength and power
Increased strength of bones
Increased lean body mass
Increased functional fitness in older women
Improved glucose tolerance (lower risk for diabetes type II)
Improved balance and gait in very old women


Strength Training for Women, continued Weight Machines versus Free Weights Strengths Weaknesses Weight Machines safe
easy to use
work all major muscle groups
minimal skill required high cost
limited number of exercises
restricted movements Free Weights variety of exercises
mimic true movements
lower cost
develop skilled movement not as safe
require more skill
require spotters

References and Suggested Reading
American College of Sports Medicine. 1998. The recommended quantity and quality of exercise for developing and maintaining cardiorespiratory and muscular fitness, and flexibility in healthy adults. Position stand. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 30, 975-91.

DeLorme, T. L. 1945. Restoration of muscle power by heavy resistance exercise. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 27, 645-67.

Fahey, T. D., & Hutchinson, G. 1992. Weight Training for Women. Mountain, CA: Mayfield Publishing.

Fiatarone, M. A., et al. 1990. High intensity strength training in nonagenarians: Effects on skeletal muscle. Journal of the American Medical Association, 263,3029-34.

Freedson, P. S. 1994. Muscular strength and endurance. In D. M. Costa & S. R. Guthrie (Eds.), Women and Sport (pp. 177-83). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Hunter, G. R., et al. 1995. The effects of strength conditioning on older women's ability to perform daily tasks. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 43, 7 5 6 - 6 0 .

Lindle, R. S. et al. 1997. Age and gender comparisons of muscle strength in 654 women and men aged 20- 93 years. Journal of Applied Physiology, 83, 1581-87.

Lohman, T., et al. 1995. Effects of resistance training on regional and total bone mineral density in premenopausal women: A randomized prospective study. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research, 10, 1015-24.

Martel, G. F., et al. 1999. Strength training normalizes resting blood pressure in 65- to 73-year old men and women with high normal blood pressure. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 47, 1215-21.

Morganti, C. M., et al. 1995. Strength improvements with 1 yr of progressive resistance training in older adults. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 27, 906-12.

Nelson, M. E., et al. 1994. Effects of high intensity strength training on multiple risk factors for osteo-porotic fractures: A randomized control trial. Journalof the American Medical Association, 272 1909-14.

Tracy, B. L., et al. 1999. Muscle quality. Effects of strength training in 65- to 75-yr old men and women. Journal of Applied Physiology, 86, 195-201.

Treuth, M. S., et al. 1995. Reduction in intra-abdominal adipose tissue after strength training in older women. Journal of Applied Physiology, 78, 1425-31.

Wilmore, J. H. 1974. Alterations in strength, body composition and anthropometric measurements consequent to a 10 week weight training program. Medicine and Science in Sports, 6, 133-8.

Patty S. Freedson, PhD, is graduate program director in the Exercise ScienceDepartment at the University of Massachusetts in Amherst. A member of the Life Fitness Academy Scientific andMedical Advisory Board, she can be contacted at [email protected]
 
Strength Training for Women: Debunking Myths That Block Opportunity
William P. Ebben, MS, MSSW, CSCS; Randall L. Jensen, PhD
THE PHYSICIAN AND SPORTSMEDICINE - VOL 26 - NO. 5 - MAY 98



--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

In Brief: Traditional gender roles and differences in absolute strength have resulted in misconceived approaches to strength training for women. Male physiology, more than hormones, explains men's superior absolute strength. When other measures of strength are used, such as strength relative to cross-sectional area of muscle, the strength of men and women is nearly equal. Women who practice the same well-designed strength training programs as men benefit from bone and soft-tissue modeling, increased lean body mass, decreased fat, and enhanced self-confidence.

Although American women first began strength training for sports in the 1950s to improve their performance in track and field, they have traditionally participated in strength training less than men. Such exercise has not been considered feminine, and a lack of research and information regarding the effects of such training on women has made it a predominantly male activity. Women's participation was particularly limited until 1972, when Title IX mandated equal access to educational programs--including athletics--for men and women in schools that receive federal funding. Since then, women's sports participation has burgeoned, traditional gender roles have loosened, and strength training has grown in popularity among active women.

Nevertheless, the social stigma and lack of accurate information persist and feed misconceptions that keep women away from strength training or prevent them from training in optimal ways (see "Dispelling Misconceptions," below). Though gender differences regarding absolute strength exist, women are as able as men to develop strength relative to total muscle mass. Consequently, women should strength train in the same ways as men, using the same program design, exercises, intensities, and volumes, relative to their body size and level of strength, so they can achieve the maximum physiologic and psychological benefits.


Gender Stereotypes
Our culture has traditionally viewed strength as a masculine trait and promoted a small, frail body as feminine. Consequently, girls have been discouraged from participating in gross-motor-skill activities and strength development. Such sex role stereotypes, formed early in childhood, can dictate behavior and limit women's and men's ability to express their full humanity. This means that some women may have never achieved their potential for physical well-being, fitness, and athletic participation.

The advent of the women's movement in the 1970s allowed many women to overcome such traditional socialization and participate more freely in sports and strength training. However, change occurs slowly, and physical strength and strength training are still not as common or accepted for women as they are for men.


A Gender Gap in Strength?
Research (1,2) on male and female strength potential reveals that women possess about two thirds of the strength of men. However, the measurement of strength in absolute terms fosters misconceptions about the strength of women, how women see themselves, and the way they exercise.

What causes this strength difference? Are there ways to conceptualize strength that affirm women's potential and encourage their development?

The role of hormones. Hormones play a role in the development of absolute strength in men and women, but the exact influence is not clear. The androgens that come from the adrenal glands and ovaries are the hormones most likely to influence strength. The most important androgens for strength development are testosterone and androstenedione. The absolute androstenedione response to weight lifting is similar in females and males (3).

The role of testosterone in strength development is complex and significantly more variable than that of androstenedione. Though women on average have about one tenth the testosterone of men (4), the level of testosterone varies greatly among women and influences women's strength development more than is typical in men (3). Women who have higher testosterone levels may have a greater potential for strength and power development than other women. An individual woman's testosterone level fluctuates, so a woman who is near the upper limit of her testosterone threshold may have an advantage in developing strength compared with other women. Though hormones may influence strength development potential among women, they most likely do not account for significant male-female differences in absolute strength.

Physiologic factors. Physiologic differences such as size and body structure are more likely explanations for the average absolute strength differences between men and women. For example, the average American male is about 13 cm taller than the average female and about 18 kg heavier. Men average about 18 to 22 kg more lean body mass and 3 to 6 kg less fat than women. Men typically have a taller, wider frame that supports more muscle, as well as broader shoulders that provide a greater leverage advantage.


The Strength of Women
Strength, however, should not be viewed in absolute terms. The gender differences in absolute strength, for example, are not consistent for all muscle groups. Women possess about 40% to 60% of the upper-body strength and 70% to 75% of the lower-body strength of men (3). Men may have an advantage in neuromuscular response time that results in greater force production speed than women (5). However, the distribution of muscle fiber types--fast and slow twitch--is similar in the two sexes, and women are able to use a greater portion of stored elastic energy than men during activities in which muscle is prestretched, such as in the countermovement prior to jumping.

More significantly, if the amount of lean body mass is factored into the strength equation, the relative strength difference between men and women is less appreciable. Based on a strength-to-lean-body-mass ratio, women are about equal in strength to men, and when strength is calculated per cross-sectional area of muscle, no significant gender difference exists. For example, a 15 cm2 cross-sectional area of an arm flexor has about 19 kg of force for both women and men (6).

Measuring strength in this way suggests that muscle at the cellular level has a force development capability independent of sex and that women benefit from strength training at least as much as men. Hence men and women should follow strength training procedures that include periodization--variations in the resistance training program that are implemented over a specific time--and exercise performed at intensities and volumes suited to physical ability and level of strength conditioning. Ultimately, each athlete should be assessed as an individual, and training programs should meet individual needs and goals, rather than those based on preconceived ideas about gender.


The Benefits for Women
Women benefit from strength training in several ways (table 1).



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Table 1. Strength Training Benefits for Women*


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Enhanced bone modeling to increase bone strength and reduce the risk of osteoporosis
Stronger connective tissues to increase joint stability and help prevent injury
Increased functional strength for sports and daily activity
Increased lean body mass and decreased nonfunctional body fat
Higher metabolic rate because of an increase in muscle and a decrease in fat
Improved self-esteem and confidence


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* A number of factors may reduce or eliminate these benefits, including the exclusive use of weight training machines, training with loads that are too light, and not progressing in resistance or intensity.



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Bone and soft tissue. Women, more than men, need to meet the minimal essential strain required for bone modeling to occur and ultimately for reducing the risk of osteoporosis. Prevention of osteoporosis requires above-normal axial skeletal loading (7,8). The strain tolerance for skeletal bone is believed to be more than 10 times the typical load that humans bear in daily activities (9). Since bone modeling is proportional to the degree of overload (the amount of stress applied beyond the normal load), the greater the overload--within limits--the greater the amount of bone modeling. Bone modeling helps prevent fractures and insure against osteoporosis.

Cartilage, tendons, and ligaments also have minimal essential strain requirements. Optimal strength development requires loads and intensities that progressively increase the training stimulus or stress. Strong cartilage, tendons, and ligaments are essential for joint integrity, stability, and injury prevention.

Lean body mass and fat. Strength training also increases lean body mass and decreases fat; this results in less nonfunctional fat to carry and a greater proportion of lean body mass, which can provide functional strength. Compared to fat, muscle is metabolically active and increases metabolic rate, fat oxidation, and calorie consumption. Increased muscle mass and muscle cross-sectional area also correlate with increased strength. Participation in "functional" strength training exercises will develop functional strength and most likely improve performance, whether it is an increased ability to spike a volleyball or pick up a child.

Psychological well-being. Finally, studies (3) suggest that women who engage in strength training benefit from improved self-esteem. Female athletes appear to be able to balance strength and femininity; according to one survey, 94% of the participants reported that athletic participation did not lead them to feel less feminine. Strength training also appears to give women a sense of personal power, especially for women who have been raped or abused.

Such psychological benefits arise from the physiologic changes that occur as a result of strength training and from the process of encountering and mastering physical challenges. Thus, both the process and the outcome of strength training benefit women (3).


Strength Training Guidelines
Since well-designed strength training programs include exercises with free weights and dumbbells and exercises that use body weight resistance, both women and men should include these in their training, and women should train at the same intensities as men.

The use of strength training machines and abdominal exercises need not be discontinued, but emphasis should be placed on the use of free-weight exercises including foot-based lower-body exercises such as the lunge, diagonal lunge, walking lunge, step up, lateral step up, and squat. Women should also include upper-body exercises that employ multiple muscle groups such as the bench press, incline press, latissimus dorsi pull-downs, pull-ups, and back extensions. Finally, women who have developed a strength base should consider total-body exercises such as the push press, hang clean, power clean, clean and jerk, and snatch.

A training program should also stress multiplanar, multijoint, functional exercises because they develop intermuscular coordination, proprioception, and balance and result in strength that transfers to sports and daily activities. For example, the step-up exercise is superior to using the leg-extension machine because it offers functional strength for walking up a flight of stairs while carrying bags of groceries. For athletes who play foot-based sports such as basketball, the squat is superior to using the leg-press machine, since the squat is functionally more similar to the sport and requires greater balance and weight and body control in all three planes of motion.


Fostering Strength
Though sex role stereotypes still powerfully shape our culture and behavior, physical strength is no longer the sole domain of men. More and more women are claiming strength as their own through participation in sports and especially in strength training programs. Such participation helps to counter the stereotypes and fosters an appreciation of strength as desirable for women.

References
Hettinger J: Physiology of Strength, Springfield, IL, Charles Thomas, 1961
Holloway JB: Individual differences and their implications for resistance training, in Baechle TR (ed): Essentials of Strength Training and Conditioning, Champaign, IL, Human Kinetics, 1994, pp 151-162
National Strength and Conditioning Association: Position Paper: Strength Training for Female Athletes. National Strength and Conditioning Association, Colorado Springs, 1990
Hakkinen K, Pakarinen A, Kyrolainen H, et al: Neuromuscular adaptations and serum hormones in females during prolonged power training. Int J Sports Med 1990;11(2):91-98
Karlsson J, Jacobs I: Is the significance of muscle fiber types to muscle metabolism different in females than in males? in Borms J, Hebbelink M, Venerando A (eds): Women and Sport, an Historical, Biological, Physiological and Sports Medical Approach. Basel, Switzerland, S Karger, 1981
Ikai M, Fukunago T: Calculation of muscle strength per unit cross sectional area of human muscle by means of ultrasonic measurement. Int Z Angew Physiol 1968;26:26-32
Petranick K, Berg K: The effects of weight training on bone density of premenopausal, postmenopausal and elderly women: a review. J Strength Conditioning Res 1997;11(3):200-208
Talbott S: The female athlete triad--not just for athletes. Strength Conditioning 1996;18(2):12-16
Nigg BM, Herzog W (eds): Biomechanics of the Musculo-Skeletal System. Chichester, NY, J Wiley, 1994


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Dispelling Misconceptions
Recent studies counter several widely held beliefs that may limit the physiologic and psychological benefits of weight training for women.

Myth 1: Strength training causes women to become larger and heavier. The truth is, strength training helps reduce body fat and increase lean weight (1). These changes may result in a slight increase in overall weight, since lean body mass weighs more than fat. However, strength training results in significant increases in strength, no change or a decrease in lower-body girths, and a very small increase in upper-extremity girth. Only women with a genetic predisposition for hypertrophy who participate in high-volume, high-intensity training will see substantial increases in limb circumference.

Myth 2: Women should use different training methods than men. Women are often encouraged to use weight machines and slow, controlled movements out of a fear that using free weights, manual resistance, explosiveness (high velocity, low force), or exercises that use body weight as resistance will cause injury.

In fact, no evidence suggests that women are more likely to be injured during strength training than men. Proper exercise instruction and technique are necessary to reduce the risk of injuries for both men and women. All strength training participants should follow a program that gradually increases the intensity and load.

Furthermore, sport-specific exercise should closely mimic the biomechanics and velocity of the sport for which an athlete is training (2). The best way to achieve this is to use closed-kinetic-chain exercise that involves multiple joints and muscle groups and the ranges of motion specific to the sport. For example, the push press--rather than triceps kickbacks--offers a superior arm extension training stimulus for improving the ability to throw the shot put in track and field.

Myth 3: Women should avoid high-intensity or high-load training. Women are typically encouraged to use limited resistance, such as light dumbbells, in their strength exercises. Often such light training loads are substantially below those necessary for physiologic adaptations and certainly less than those commonly used by men.

Most women are able to train at higher volumes and intensities than previously believed. In fact, women need to train at intensities high enough to cause adaptation in bone, muscle, cartilage, ligaments, and tendons. When exercise intensity provides insufficient stimulus, physiologic benefits may be minimal (3). To gain maximum benefit from strength training, women should occasionally perform their exercises at or near the repetition maximum for each exercise.

References

Fox E, Bowers R, Foss M: The Physiological Basis for Exercise and Sport, Madison, WI, Brown and Benchmark, 1993
Stone MH, Borden RA: Modes and methods of resistance training. Strength Conditioning 1997;19(4):18-24
National Strength and Conditioning Association: Position Paper: Strength Training for Female Athletes. National Strength and Conditioning Association, Colorado Springs, 1990


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Mr Ebben is a strength coach at the University of Wisconsin in Madison. Dr Jensen is an assistant professor in the Department of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation at Northern Michigan University in Marquette. Address correspondence to William P. Ebben, MS, MSSW, CSCS, University of Wisconsin-Sports Conditioning, 1440 Monroe St, Madison, WI 53711.
 
Strength Training for Women


© Wayne L. Westcott Ph.D.

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To the best of my knowledge, I have never addressed the topic of women's strength training in the Keeping Fit column. The main reason for this is that there is essentially no difference between men and women with respect to exercise technique, training procedures or strength development. Basically, what is good for the goose is equally good for the gander.
However, you may not be aware of our research studies that led us to this conclusion. In fact, you may have heard that women should not do strength exercise for one of the following reasons.

(1) Strength training makes women too muscular and bulky.

(2) Strength training is a waste of time for women because they are not capable of developing strong muscles.

(3) Strength training is dangerous for women because their bodies are not designed to exercise with resistance.

Of course, none of these reasons is valid and such misinformation is incorrect. Actually, very few women have the genetic potential or enough natural testosterone to develop large muscles. Firm, fit, functional muscles, yes-large muscles, no. On the other hand, women most certainly can achieve high levels of muscle strength. In fact, our studies show that females develop muscle strength at the same rate as males, and on a pound-for-pound basis are equally strong. Finally, it is ridiculous to think that women's bodies are too frail to perform resistance exercise. After all, what physical activity is more demanding than childbirth?

To clarify some of the above statements let me share some of our research findings. In one of our largest studies, with over 900 male and female participants, we tested the leg strength of both genders. In terms of actual weight lifted, the men were 50 percent stronger than the women. However, the men also were, on average, 50 pounds heavier than the women. We therefore decided to compare leg strength relative to the individual's lean body weight. On a muscle-for-muscle basis we found essentially no difference in male and female leg strength. Both genders performed 10 computer-monitored leg extensions with 75 percent of their lean body weight. Other researchers have attained similar results, and no scientist can distinguish between male and female muscle tissue under the microscope, because there is no physiological difference.

Over the past 15 years, we have performed dozens of research studies and taught hundreds of classes with women strength trainers of all ages (children, teens, young adults, middle agers, and seniors). To date, not one participant has complained about becoming big or building too much muscle.

Remember, women who do not strength train lose about 5 pounds of muscle every decade of adult life. That leads to a lower metabolism and a gradual increase in fat weight (about 15 pounds per decade), as well as a less fit, firm and attractive appearance. So, in most cases, the added muscle simply replaces the muscle previously lost through lack of use. And women who start strength training typically lose twice as much fat as they gain muscle. In one of our studies, more than 700 women performed about 25 minutes of strength training (13 Nautilus exercises) and 20 minutes of aerobic activity (treadmill or cycle) 2 or 3 times a week for two months. On average, they added almost 2 pounds of muscle and lost about 4 pounds of fat. They also increased their muscle strength by over 40 percent, which greatly enhanced their physical abilities and performance levels.

In my experience, most women who start strength training make excellent progress, attain their exercise objectives, and maintain their muscular fitness through regular workouts. However, not all are satisfied with a better body composition and higher functional capacity. Some women want to achieve their best physical appearance and highest level of strength fitness.

High-Intensity Strength Training

Over the past few years, many women who enjoyed the benefits of our standard strength training program elected to participate in our high-intensity workouts. Our 6-week high-intensity strength training program involves 30 minutes of nearly continuous strength exercise, working all of the major muscle groups to fatigue. Each of the two weekly workouts is performed under the expert direction of a personal trainer who ensures safe and productive exercise sessions.

So how does such hard training affect the women's physical appearance? As you can see from the photo of our most recent high intensity trainers (and their coach), these women in their 20s, 30s and 40s look lean, strong, and extremely fit. While they are certainly muscular, they are by no means big or bulky. What's more, they feel great and function like teenage athletes.

Although these women were already well-conditioned when they started high-intensity strength training, they definitely enhanced their physical appearance over the 12 exercise sessions. On average, they added 3.3 pounds of muscle and lost 2.7 pounds of fat, for a 6-pound improvement in body composition.

Conclusions and Recommendations

Strength training is a safe and effective exercise for women. It does not produce bulky bodies, but it does develop strong and shapely muscles that are fit and functional. Both standard and high-intensity strength training programs are time efficient, requiring only two half-hour exercise sessions a week for excellent results. Over the past five years, Shape Magazine has regularly featured our women's strength training programs (basic and advanced), and the response has been excellent.

Wayne L. Westcott, Ph.D., is fitness research director at the South Shore YMCA, and author of several books on fitness, including Building Strength and Stamina, and Strength Training Past 50.
 
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